Paleoindian archaeology of the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado Rocky Mountains - Bonnie L. Pitblado (North American Archaeologist, 2016)
The past two decades have seen a fluorescence of work at Paleoindian sites in Colorado’s Upper Gunnison Basin (UGB). This article presents and synthesizes the results of that work in two parts, the first, a landscape-scale analysis of 82 UGB Paleoindian components as reported in Colorado state site files; the second, a higher-resolution analysis of Paleoindian sites excavated in recent years. Conclusions include that starting as early as Folsom time, Paleoindian groups occupied the UGB year-round, and that UGB Paleoindian settlement strategies varied significantly both synchronically and diachronically. Both findings relate in large part to the enormously diverse resource base of the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene Rocky Mountains in general and UGB in particular.

Colorado’s Water Wars Begin, 1920–1940 - Steven C. Schulte (University Press of Colorado eBooks, 2016)

Stare Decisis: Dueling Legal Interpretations of the Douglas County, Colorado Choice Scholarship Program - Robert A. Fox (Journal of School Choice, 2016)
In the absence of incontrovertible performance data in support of, or opposition to, school vouchers, court decisions on their legality become increasingly important. Analysis of legal challenges provides a rich opportunity for scholars and policymakers to follow arguments for or against their positions. We present a chronicle of the litigation history of the Douglas County, Colorado Choice Scholarship Program; a voucher program incorporating religious-based “public school partners” in which voucher recipients may enroll. We take particular notice of the differences in the way identical fact bases are interpreted by successive jurists. At this writing, the Choice Scholarship Program has been permanently enjoined from operating but further appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court would surprise no one.

Temperature response of soil respiration largely unaltered with experimental warming - J. C. Carey; A. M. Panetta; Brian J. Enquist; M. Estiarte; J. Harte; A. N. Henderson; B. R. Johnson (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2016)
Significance One of the greatest challenges in projecting future shifts in the global climate is understanding how soil respiration rates will change with warming. Multiple experimental warming studies have explored this response, but no consensus has been reached. Based on a global synthesis of 27 experimental warming studies spanning nine biomes, we find that although warming increases soil respiration rates, there is limited evidence for a shifting respiration response with experimental warming. We also note a universal decline in the temperature sensitivity of respiration at soil temperatures >25 °C. Together, our data indicate that future respiration rates are likely to follow the current temperature response function, but higher latitudes will be more responsive to warmer temperatures.

PENGARUH EKUITAS MEREK TERHADAP MINAT BELI ULANG PADA KEDAI KOPI BLACK CANYON MALL JAMTOS - S. U. K. M. A. BAKTI (Jurnal Manajemen Terapan dan Keuangan, 2016)
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui Pengaruh   Ekuitas Merek  Terhadap  Minat Beli Ulang  Pada Kedai  Kopi  Black Canyon Mall Jamtos Penelitian ini dilaksanakan di Pada Kedai  Kopi  Black Canyon Mall Jamtos . Model penelitian yang digunakan yakni dengan metode observasi, wawancara, kuesioner dan studi kepustakaan yang dilakukan secara sistematik berdasarkan tujuan penelitian. Metode analisis yang digunakan adalah dengan metode analisis regresi linear berganda, dengan menggunakan uji hipotesis yaitu uji F dan uji t. Kemudian menggunakan perhitungan korelasi regresi berganda  untuk mengetahui seberapa besar pengaruh dan signifikansi Pengaruh   Ekuitas Merek  Terhadap  Minat Beli Ulang  Pada Kedai  Kopi  Black Canyon Mall JamtosDari hasil analisis regresi dapat diketahui persamaan regresi berganda sebagai berikut: Y = 1,327 + 0,433X1 + 0,167X2 + 0,228X3 + e . Berdasarkan uji t, hasil yang diperoleh bahwa semua variabel ekuitas merek yaitu kesadaran merek,citra merek dan persepsi kualitas secara parsial   berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap minat beli ulang.  Dari penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan berdasarkan uji statistik bahwa variabel ekuitas merek  secara bersama-sama (simultan-uji F) memiliki pengaruh yang positif terhadap variabel keputusan pembelian  . Dari penelitian ini diperoleh nilai Adjusted R Square sebesar 0,62 Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa sebesar 62,9 % .

Detection, prevalence and phylogenetic relationships of Demodex spp and further skin prostigmata mites (Acari, Arachnida) in wild and domestic mammals - N. Sastre; O. Francino; J. N. Curti; Tiffany Armenta; D. L. Fraser (PLoS ONE, 2016)
This study was conceived to detect skin mites in social mammals through real-time qPCR, and to estimate taxonomic Demodex and further Prostigmata mite relationships in different host species by comparing sequences from two genes: mitochondrial 16S rRNA and nuclear 18S rRNA. We determined the mite prevalence in the hair follicles of marmots (13%) and bats (17%). The high prevalence found in marmots and bats by sampling only one site on the body may indicate that mites are common inhabitants of their skin. Since we found three different mites (Neuchelacheles sp, Myobia sp and Penthaleus sp) in three bat species (Miotis yumanensis, Miotis californicus and Corynorhinus townsendii) and two different mites (both inferred to be members of the Prostigmata order) in one marmot species (Marmota flaviventris), we tentatively concluded that these skin mites 1) cannot be assigned to the same genus based only on a common host, and 2) seem to evolve according to the specific habitat and/or specific hair and sebaceous gland of the mammalian host. Moreover, two M. yumanensis bats harbored identical Neuchelacheles mites, indicating the possibility of interspecific cross-infection within a colony. However, some skin mites species are less restricted by host species than previously thought. Specifically, Demodex canis seems to be more transmissible across species than other skin mites. D. canis have been found mostly in dogs but also in cats and captive bats. In addition, we report the first case of D. canis infestation in a domestic ferret (Mustela putorius). All these mammalian hosts are related to human activities, and D. canis evolution may be a consequence of this relationship. The monophyletic Demodex clade showing closely related dog and human Demodex sequences also supports this likely hypothesis.

Populations of aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) with different evolutionary histories differ in their climate occupancy - B. T. Greer; C. Still; G. T. Howe; Christina Tague; D. A. Roberts (Ecology and Evolution, 2016)
AbstractQuaking aspens (Populus tremuloides Michx.) are found in diverse habitats throughout North America. While the biogeography of aspens' distribution has been documented, the drivers of the phenotypic diversity of aspen are still being explored. In our study, we examined differences in climate between northern and southwestern populations of aspen, finding large‐scale differences between the populations. Our results suggest that northern and southwestern populations live in distinct climates and support the inclusion of genetic and phenotypic data with species distribution modeling for predicting aspens' distribution.

Effects of climate change on phenologies and distributions of bumble bees and the plants they visit - G. H. Pyke; J. D. Thomson; David W. Inouye; T. E. X. Miller (Ecosphere, 2016)
AbstractSurveys of bumble bees and the plants they visit, carried out in 1974 near the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in Colorado, were repeated in 2007, thus permitting the testing of hypotheses arising from observed climate change over the intervening 33‐yr period. As expected, given an increase in average air temperature with climate warming and a declining temperature with increasing elevation, there have been significant shifts toward higher elevation for queens or workers or both, for most bumble bee species, for bumble bee queens when species are combined, and for two focal plant species, with no significant downward shifts. However, contrary to our hypotheses, we failed to observe significant altitudinal changes for some bumble bee species and most plant species, and observed changes in elevation were often less than the upward shift of 317 m required to maintain average temperature. As expected, community flowering phenology shifted toward earlier in the season throughout our study area, but bumble bee phenology generally did not change, resulting in decreased synchrony between bees and plants. However, we were unable to confirm the narrower expectation that phenologies of bumble bee workers and community flowering coincided in 1974 but not in 2007. As expected, because of reduced synchrony between bumble bees and community flowering, bumble bee abundance was reduced in 2007 compared with 1974. Hence, climate change in our study area has apparently resulted primarily in reduced abundance and upward shift in distribution for bumble bees and shift toward earlier seasonality for plant flowering. Quantitative disagreements between climate change expectations and our observations warrant further investigation.

Asteraceae pollen provisions protect Osmia mason bees (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) from brood parasitism - D. M. Spear; Sarah Silverman; J. R. K. Forrest (American Naturalist, 2016)
Many specialist herbivores eat foods that are apparently low quality. The compensatory benefits of a poor diet may include protection from natural enemies. Several bee lineages specialize on pollen of the plant family Asteraceae, which is known to be a poor-quality food. Here we tested the hypothesis that specialization on Asteraceae pollen protects bees from parasitism. We compared rates of brood parasitism by Sapyga wasps on Asteraceae-specialist, Fabeae-specialist, and other species of Osmia bees in the field over several years and sites and found that Asteraceae-specialist species were parasitized significantly less frequently than other species. We then tested the effect of Asteraceae pollen on parasites by raising Sapyga larvae on three pollen mixtures: Asteraceae, Fabeae, and generalist (a mix of primarily non-Asteraceae pollens). Survival of parasite larvae was significantly reduced on Asteraceae provisions. Our results suggest that specialization on low-quality pollen may evolve because it helps protect bees from natural enemies.

A new homolid crab, Zygastrocarcinus tricki sp. nov., from the Pierre Shale (middle Campanian), Baculite Mesa, Pueblo County, Colorado, USA - Torrey Nyborg; Malcolm Bedell; Alessandro Garassino; Neal L. Larson; Gale A. Bishop (Acta Geologica Polonica, 2016)
Abstract A new species of homolid crab, Zygastrocarcinus tricki sp. nov., is reported from the Late Cretaceous (middle Campanian, Baculites scotti Zone) of the Pierre Shale Formation (Baculite Mesa, Pueblo County, Colorado). This nearly complete homolid, hereto described is the sixth species assigned to the genus and extends our knowledge along with the geographical range and geological age of this taxon.

Using geochemical indicators to distinguish high biogeochemical activitiy in floodplain soils and sediments - A. M. Kenwell; A. K. Navarre-Sitchler; R. Prugue; J. R. Spear; A. S. Hering; R. M. Maxwell; R. W. H. Carroll (Sci Total Environ, 2016)
This study develops a methodology to predict potential elevated rates of biogeochemical activity (microbial "hotspots") in subsurface environments by correlating microbial DNA and aspects of the community structure with the spatial distribution of geochemical indicators in subsURface sediments.

Assessing the sensitivity of foraging and vigilance to internal state and environmental variables in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris). - H. E. Chmura; T. W. Wey; Daniel T. Blumstein (Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 2016)

Quantifying global soil carbon losses in response to warming - T. W. Crowther; K. E. O. Todd-Brown; C. W. Rowe; Aimee T Classen; J. Harte (Nature, 2016)
A comprehensive analysis of warming-induced changes in soil carbon stocks is presented by assembling data from 49 field experiments, finding that the effects of warming are contingent on the size of the initial soil carbon stock, with considerable losses occurring in high-latitude areas.

Frost sensitivity of leaves and flowers of subalpine plants is related to tissue type and phenology. - Paul J. CaraDonna; J. A. Bain (Journal of Ecology, 2016)

The effect of body size and habitat on the evolution of alarm vocalizations in rodents. - V. Garcia-Nava; Daniel T. Blumstein (Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2016)

Seasonal variation in the secondary chemistry of foliar and reproductive tissues of Delphinium nuttallianum. - Daniel Cook; A. Slominski; D. R. Gardner; J. A. Pfister; R. E. Irwin (Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 2016)

Reproductive Ecology of Female Golden-Mantled Ground Squirrels - Caitlin P. Wells (2016)

Altitudinal gradients do not predict plant-symbiont responses to experimental warming. - Melanie R Kazenel (2016)

Reconstruction and spatial analysis of alpine treeline in the Elk Mountains, Colorado, USA - J. Sakulich (Physical Geography, 2016)

Mutualistic Networks Over Time: The Effects of Changing Floral Abundances on Plant- Pollinator Interactions - R. Poulton-Kamakura (2016)
Plant-pollinator networks have been shown to have a general structure that is constant across time and geographic range. However, the identities of the plants and pollinators within these networks and the ways in which they interact are highly variable. We investigated a possible mechanism for this variability: niche breadth changes driven by changing levels of intraspecific competition. If intraspecific competition can partially explain changing network composition, we can use it to predict future ecosystem changes and help maintain ecosystem and species stability in a changing climate. We examined the effects of changing floral abundance on niche breadth throughout one growing season. We predicted that increasing floral abundance, accompanied by greater intraspecific competition, would increase plant species niche breadth above that expected due to increased abundance of inflorescences alone; probabilistically species will interact with the most abundant species the most even if abundance were the only factor. We found that the pollination networks in the sites investigated are all highly nested and found evidence that a species' niche breadth varies across sites (as predicted by the literature). The data do not currently support the claim that niche breadth increases with increasing abundance due to increased intraspecific competition; finer pollinator species identification may reveal further trends in the data. Once pollinators are identified to species, the analysis will be redone and the hypothesis revisited.

Sixty-five years of change in montane plant communities in Western Colorado, USA - Stephanie Zorio; C. F. Williams; K. A. Aho (Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 2016)
Documenting and predicting patterns of vegetation change over time are challenging due to a lack of sufficiently detailed historical data for comparison. Montane plant communities are expected to respond to anthropogenic disturbance, including climate change, in complex ways dependent on component species' responses to changing abiotic and biotic conditions. To investigate the patterns and possible causes of temporal changes in montane plant communities, we resampled 121 transects surveyed by Jean Langenheim from 1948 to 1952 in the East River Basin near Crested Butte, Colorado, U.S.A. Langenheim quantified the composition of the four predominant community types (sagebrush, spruce-fir, upland-herbaceous, and alpine) at sites ranging from 2600 to 4100 m in elevation. Our resurvey of the same sites 65 years later revealed that all four communities currently have much higher levels of heterogeneity among sites and have experienced significant changes in species composition and dominance. Compositional changes include significant increases in bare ground, graminoid and shrub abundance, and loss of forbs, at higher elevations. Species' mean elevations shifted upward 41 m, and many species expanded their ranges into new communities. Elevation shifts were most pronounced from lower elevation communities, while many alpine species shifted their ranges into lower subalpine meadow communities.

Abiotic mediation of a mutualism drives herbivore abundance. - K. A. Mooney; J. S. Phillips; C. V. Tillberg; C. Sandrow; A. S. Nelson; K. A. Mooney (Ecology Letters, 2016)

Geographic divergence in upper thermal limits across insect life stages: does behavior matter? - H. J. MacLean; J. K. Higgins; L. B. Buckley; J. G. Kingsolver (Oecologia, 2016)
The findings are inconsistent with the hypothesis that thermoregulatory behavior inhibits the geographic divergence of physiological traits in mobile stages, and suggest that sessile stages may evolve similar heat tolerances in different environments due to microclimatic variability or evolutionary constraints.

Heterospecific pollen deposition in Delphinium barbeyi: linking stigmatic pollen loads to reproductive output in the field - H. M. Briggs; L. Anderson; L. M. Atalla; A. M. Delva; E. K. Dobbs; B. J. Brosi (Annals of Botany, 2016)

Pattern and variation of the time budget of yellow-bellied marmots. - Kenneth B. Armitage; C. M. Salsbury (Ethology, Ecology and Evolution, 2016)

The Colorado River Revisited - Jason Anthony Robison (SSRN Electronic Journal, 2016)

Historical changes in thermoregulatory traits of alpine butterflies reveal complex ecological and evolutionary responses to recent climate change - H. J. MacLean; J. G. Kingsolver; L. B. Buckley (Climate Change Responses, 2016)
Background: Trait evolution and plasticity are expected to interactively influence responses to climate change, but rapid changes in and increased variability of temperature may limit evolutionary responses. We use historical specimens to document changes in the size and thermoregulatory traits of a montane butterfly, Colias meadii, in Colorado, USA over the past 60 years (1953–2012). We quantify forewing wing length, ventral wing melanin that increases solar absorption, and the length of thorax setae that reduces convective heat loss. Results: The mean of all three traits has increased during this time period despite climate warming. Phenological shifts may have extended the active season earlier at low elevations and later at high elevations, increasing exposure to cool temperatures and selecting for increases in thermoregulatory traits. Fitness increases at higher elevations due to warming could also increase thermoregulatory traits. Warmer temperatures during pupal development and later flight dates in the season are associated with decreased wing melanin, indicating a role of phenotypic plasticity in historical trait changes. Conclusions: Phenotypic shifts result from a complex interplay of ecological and evolutionary responses to climate change. Environmental variability within and across seasons can limit the evolutionary responses of populations to increasing mean temperatures during climate change.

Captive-breeding of captive and wild-reared Gunnison sage-grouse - Anthony D. Apa; Lief A. Wiechman (Zoo Biology, 2016)
Gunnison sage-grouse (Centrocercus minimus) distribution in North America has decreased over historical accounts and has received federal protection under the Endangered Species Act. We investigated captive-breeding of a captive-flock of Gunnison sage-grouse created from individuals reared in captivity from wild-collected eggs we artificially incubated. We also introduced wild-reared individuals into captivity. Our captive-flock successfully bred and produced fertile eggs. We controlled the timing and duration of male-female breeding interactions and facilitated a semi-natural mating regime. Males established a strutting ground in captivity that females attended for mate selection. In 2010, we allowed females to establish eight nests, incubate, and hatch eggs. Females in captivity were more successful incubating nests than raising broods. Although there are many technical, financial, and logistic issues associated with captive-breeding, we recommend that federal biologists and managers work collaboratively with state wildlife agencies and consider developing a captive-flock as part of a comprehensive conservation strategy for a conservation-reliant species like the Gunnison sage-grouse. The progeny produced from a captive-rearing program could assist in the recovery if innovative approaches to translocation are part of a comprehensive proactive conservation program.

Road Dust, Ipomopsis aggregata Seed Count, and attack by Hylemya Flies—Are they Linked? - V. Ramirez (2016)
At the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL), road dust is easily dispersed by vehicle transportation and can travel 200 meters from the road. A previous study found that road dust had an ecological impact on several species of common wildflowers at the RMBL, including scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata. I studied the effects of road dust on the anthomyiid fly Hylemya sp., a pre-dispersal seed predator of I. aggregata. Experimental application of road dust affected the number of elongated flower buds produced by plants, but not the number of open flowers. Hylemya females laid eggs approximately twice as often on undusted flowers as on dusted flowers. The likelihood of finding Hylemya larvae or larval damage in fruits that came from flowers with eggs did not differ between treatments, nor did the estimated seed counts. The seed count remained relatively similar throughout the season regardless of the treatment. Results in this study suggest that Hylemya females are using cues from I. aggregata to select the best host, and additionally manipulating the hosts’ condition to benefit their offspring.

Comparison of CMIP3 and CMIP5 projected hydrologic conditions over the Upper Colorado River Basin - Jessica Ayers; Darren L. Ficklin; Iris T. Stewart; Meredith Strunk (International Journal of Climatology, 2016)
This work presents updated hydrologic projections for the Upper Colorado River Basin (UCRB) using downscaled (approximately 12 km) General Circulation Model (GCM) output from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project – Phase 5 (CMIP5) with a comparison to CMIP3 GCMs. We use the Soil and Water Assessment Tool model to simulate the impacts of end-of-century climate change on the UCRB using 21 CMIP5 and 18 CMIP3 GCMs, collected into one CMIP5 ensemble and one CMIP3 ensemble, respectively. Previous CMIP3 studies have identified a drier climate for the UCRB because of projected increases in temperature and decreases/little change in precipitation. Hydrologic simulations from CMIP5 inputs suggest wetter conditions than simulations based on CMIP3 inputs, yet drier conditions than the historical climate. Both ensembles lead to timing shifts in peak streamflow during the snowmelt season from changes in snowmelt, but the higher CMIP5 projected precipitation leads to, on average, peak streamflows 200–300 m3 s−1 larger (25–40% difference) than the CMIP3 projections. This difference is largely generated in the northern UCRB region, where CMIP5 simulations project much more significant increases in streamflow than CMIP3. This increase is largely due to an overall larger rise in precipitation in the CMIP5 ensemble (57% of the total UCRB area) compared to the CMIP3 ensemble (5%). Even with projected increases in precipitation, snowmelt is projected to decrease dramatically throughout the UCRB for both ensembles. The increases in precipitation and decreases in snowmelt leads to significant differences in hydrologic flux components between the CMIP3 and CMIP5 ensembles, such as end-of-century rises in soil water content and evapotranspiration in the CMIP5 ensemble compared to the CMIP3 ensemble. The difference between the dry CMIP3 and the somewhat wetter CMIP5 projections may be critical for water management in the already over-allocated UCRB.

Understanding how leaf endophytes are affected by climate change: Examining fungi in grass species with warming - V. Silva (2016)
Climate change is impacting ecological systems around the globe with much of current research characterizing direct plant and animal responses. However, there is a gap in our knowledge regarding the direct response of fungal symbionts to climate change. Horizontally transmitted leaf endophytes (type II and III) exist within all plant tissue surveyed to date and potentially play a fundamental role in altering plant response to global change in their ability to alter plant physiology and growth in response to stress. Potential benefits observed in endophyte-positive plants include increased resistance to herbivores, increased competitive ability, increased plant vigor, greater drought-tolerance and changes in nutrient cycling and content of plants (Clay & Rudgers 2005, Rudgers et al. 2009, Kivlin et al. 2013). Here, we examined three grass species from controlled (ambient temperature) or warming plots (2°C increase in temperature) from Gothic, Colorado and assessed their fungal endophytes. We measured physiological responses such as growth rate and alpha and beta diversity via changes in species richness and composition in response to temperature increases mimicking climate change. We hypothesized that increased temperature would increase endophytic growth rates, decrease diversity and change composition of the endophyte communities. However, our analysis showed that there was no significant relationship between temperature variation and the three dependent variables in culturable fungal endophytes. Therefore, plants may buffer their endophytes against moderate increases in temperature expected with climate change. Analyses also found that species played a integral role in fungal response to increased temperatures.

Temperature and Nestling Development: Temporal Variations in Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha Feeding Frequency - Savannah Troy (2016)
Mountain White-crowned Sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha) are unique in that their nestlings, which require parental care for 9 days before fledging, have a 25% higher metabolic rate than other open-nesting passerines. This unusually high energetic demand requires that parents frequently feed their young; however, female sparrows must balance their time between bouts of foraging and incubating to protect vulnerable nestlings from extreme temperatures. I hypothesized that this tradeoff in parental nest attendance behavior varies on colder versus warmer days. In particular, feeding rates are reduced and/or delayed on cold mornings and on hot afternoons. These patterns would accommodate for incubation during early hours and shading from intense sun during afternoon hours. This was tested by monitoring Mountain White-crowned Sparrow nests with data loggers that recorded temperature every two minutes and a nest camera that revealed the frequency of different behaviors. Analysis showed a significant but extremely weak negative correlation between the frequency of feeding and temperature (R2 = 0.063831, p = 0.0042) and between the proportion of time parents were absent from the nest and temperature (R2 = 0.047224, p = 0.0141). ANOVAs of both temperature with feeding frequency and temperature with parental absence over 3.5 hour intervals revealed that cold mornings have higher feeding frequency but a lower proportion of parental absence than warm mornings. In cold afternoons, there is a higher feeding frequency but an equivalent proportion of parental absence as warm afternoons. However, only the difference in morning feeding frequency is significant (p = 0.03).

Does Stress Explain Variation in Marmot Parenting Behavior or Pup Survival? - A. Reese (2016)
Raising offspring is one of the most important roles of mothers in many species. We studied maternal care in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) and how it is affected by stress. Stress helps these rodents survive hazardous situations. To study this, we observed the marmots at The Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in Gothic, Colorado, USA. We recorded their alarm calling rates, social interaction rates, and vigilant behavior. We measured stress levels by analyzing the fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in feces that were collected from the marmots when they had been trapped. We found significant relationships between stress levels of female reproductive marmots and over-winter pup survival as well as between litter size and over- summer pup survival. Higher glucocorticoid levels, which signify higher stress levels, were indicative of lower over-winter pup survival and lower pup survival into the next year. Larger litter sizes were associated with lower summer survival rates. Stress is an important factor in the ability for mothers to raise their offspring into adulthood, sustaining her lineage.

Carbon Dioxide Fluxes in Alpine and Subalpine Soils of the East River Watershed - Maeve McCormick (2016)

Solutions for archiving data in long-term studies - a reply to Whitlock et al. - James A. Mills; Céline Teplitsky; B. Arroyo; Anne Charmantier; P. H. Becker; T. R. Birkhead; P. Bize; Daniel T. Blumstein; C. Bonenfant; S. Boutin; A. Bushuev; E. Cam; et al. (Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 2016)
The objective of the recent paper was to define practices to simultaneously maximize the benefits and minimize the potential unwanted consequences of PDA.

Colorado's Water: A Problem Rooted in Geography and History - Steven C. Schulte (University Press of Colorado eBooks, 2016)

The future of plant-fungal symbioses along elevational gradients - A. Freed (2016)
Plant-fungal symbioses affect the growth and fitness of most plants on earth. Moreover, they can structure plant community composition and feedback to affect ecosystem-level properties such as carbon storage. As climate change drives species distribution shifts in plants, the fungi may or may not co-disperse along with their symbiotic plant species. Thus, the future of these relationships could look very different, and owing to the potential community and ecosystem-level ramifications, it is important to understand the consequences of these potential plant-symbiont mismatches. We simulated the species distribution shift of Festuca thurberi and Festuca saximontana expected under climate warming in the next century and manipulated the fungal communities of plants at high and low elevation. We found that broadly distributed Festuca saximontana will perform poorly if associated with fungi from low elevation, regardless of which elevation it is grown in. Festuca thurberi on the other hand, will perform better at all elevations if they co-disperse with their fungi from lower elevations. This difference in performance could disrupt current montane plant communities and lead to a change in carbon storage and nutrient cycling in these ecosystems.

Correlation of leaf and community traits and various spectra in meadows along an elevation gradient - R. Craig (2016)
The capabilities of remote sensing technology are advancing rapidly, and with it, the applications of those technologies are also advancing. Indices such as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) have long been used to determine vegetative health, but no direct measurements have been made to quantify communities until recently. Studies into the spectral properties of plants and ways in which to expand the quantifiable measurements done with hyperspectral imaging and increasing with the sophistication of imaging technology and modeling techniques. Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) is a technique that can pair spectral wavelengths with measured traits. With these relationships, we can measure traits directly from the spectral signature without the need of pervasive and destructive sampling techniques. The PLSR developed with this methodology is built using data from montane and subalpine meadows in the area of Gothic, Colorado, but can be tested on other vegetative communities to assess the model’s resilience in more varied conditions. We used hyperspectral imaging with wavelengths from 400-1000 nanometers and collected leaf and community traits to construct the model. describe your results and conclusions.

Effects of Plant Diversity on Selection for Insect Resistance Traits in Boechera stricta - A. Simha (2016)
Evolution by natural selection is influenced by an organism’s environment. Biodiversity, an aspect of the biotic environment, is rapidly changing due to anthropogenic activity, so its impacts on selection must be better understood. In this study, the effects of diversity on selection for an insect resistance gene and trait were studied in Boechera stricta. In naturally-occurring B. stricta, abundances of morphospecies in 1x1-meter plots containing the focal species were recorded. Damage and fitness data were also collected. Fitness was shown to decrease significantly across damage, confirming the theoretical basis of the study and allowing damage to proxy fitness, though this was not the case in a model that considered phenological stage as a covariate. Richness was shown to predict damage with marginal significance (p =0.0614), but a Shannon-Weaver Index and Simpson Index analysis yielded no meaningful results. A principal components analysis (PCA) allowed researchers to identify species that correlated most strongly with the third PCA axis, which significantly predicted damage. 3 of those top 5 species abundances significantly correlated positively with damage directly, without the PCA axis as an intermediate. These results show the importance of community composition, which accounts for species identity, in insect damage. It also points to the importance of low-density, low-abundance species, which may not create a strong signal in indices like Simpson, but which affect richness more strongly, and some of which were shown to influence damage through the PCA. Further study is certainly necessary to understand which sorts of species might be most important in influencing damage and the extent of their potential influence. Simha 3

Effects of Elevation on Trap Behavior in Mountain White-crowned Sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha) - Richard G. Baker (2016)
The Mountain White-crowned Sparrow(Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha) is a migratory songbird that nests in alpine and sub-alpine meadows in the Rocky Mountains. They return to their natal elevation to breed, and nest from 2,438m to 3,657m above sea level in the spring to late summer. Because they nest at such high elevations, these birds have adapted to endure increased solar heating, low nocturnal temperatures, sudden intense storms, large interannual variations in residual snowpack, a shorter growing season, lower plant productivity, and seasonal delays in insect and fruit emergence (Körner 2003). As the elevation increases each of these effects of elevation increase or intensifies as well; hence, habitat at low elevation would be considered higher quality and we would predict to see more competitive and aggressive individuals establish territories in these areas. The ideal despotic distribution theory states that competitive individuals occupy the preferred elevations and habitats, while inferior competitors breed in suboptimal habitats that are typically higher in elevation (Bear et al. 2009). With such differences in elevation I hypothesized that at lower elevations we will see more active and more aggressive birds due to the abundance in high quality habitat and a high number of competitors. Data was collected from June 1st 2016 to August 1st 2016. Behavioral response data was collected by recording the activity of each bird in the trap for 15 seconds. The duration of each activity performed within the 15 seconds was recorded. To analyze the data we broke the activities down into three categories—low activity, high activity and damaging activity—and assigned each individual action to a category. Our results came out to be significant between high elevation low activity and low elevation low activity (P=0.00033) and showed that birds at low elevation displayed significantly more low activity responses than birds at high elevation. My results did not support my hypothesis nor does it support the ideal despotic distribution theory. With this as the pilot study I believe more research should be done to gather a larger sample size to better understand why these results did not support this well tested theory.

The Douglas County Model in Western Colorado - Judith Thomas; Mark Noble (Journal of Library Administration, 2016)
In 2012 the Marmot Library Network implemented the Douglas County Library Model of ebook collection and circulation. By 2014 Marmot had loaded 838 ebooks purchased direct from publishers and independent authors to an Adobe Content Server, and made them available in an open source discovery layer based on VuFind. In late 2015, after 3 years of disappointing circulation and tedious acquisition processes, Marmot decided to move some of this collection to OverDrive and abandon the local ACS. This article reports lessons learned from that experiment.Column Editor’s Note This column focuses on formal collaboration and networking among libraries through consortia. It offers in-depth examinations of issues facing modern library consortia including (but not limited to) e-resource licensing, ebooks, next generation integrated library systems, shared print programs, shared digital repositories, governance, cooperative services and other relevant topics. Contributions are accepted for this column and must be submitted to George Machovec (george@coalliance.org). Contact the column editor for suggested topics, deadlines and formatting.

Fitness and hormonal correlates of social and ecological stressors of female yellow-bellied marmots. - Daniel T. Blumstein; K. N. Keeley; J. E. Smith (Animal Behaviour, 2016)
The results suggest that elevated baseline FGM levels failed to mediate reproductive suppression in marmots, highlighting the importance of social status, body condition and predator abundance on determining reproductive success in highly seasonal breeders.

Analysis of Ice Detector Observations at Mount Crested Butte, Colorado during the 2014-2015 Winter Season - Don A. Griffith; Shauna M. Ward; David P. Yorty (The Journal of Weather Modification, 2016)
See paper, could not copy and paste absract.

The Visual Ecology of Speyeria mormonia - N. Sanchez Gonzalez (2016)
Variations in environmental factors such as temperature, precipitation, and day

Population and community consequences of ecological differences between the sexes. - William K. Petry (2016)

Do bees show response diversity to environmental variables in a montane ecosystem? - S. Cook (2016)
With climate change threatening a wide variety of organisms and ecosystems, expanding our knowledge of how they will respond is vital for making predictions and conservation decisions. One important group of organisms impacted by climate change is the wild bees, which provide an essential ecosystem service through their role as plant pollinators. Therefore, in an effort to understand better how bees are responding to changing weather patterns, we examined how the abundances of different species changed with response to environmental variables. Additionally, we looked at the relationship between response diversity and environmental variables and bee traits. We sampled bees at three groups of sites at the Rocky Mountain Biological Lab in Gothic, CO, using pan traps and netting, and collected environmental data on yearly wind, precipitation, and temperature from nearby weather stations. Using generalized linear models we found that different species exhibited significant responses to different environmental variables. Additionally, most of the species that responded to a variable responded in the same direction. We employed a fourth corner analysis to find a correlation between traits and responses, but it produced no significant results.

Multi-decadal and multi-centennial variability in Colorado River streamflow - Sajad Ahmad Hamidi; Reza Namdar Ghanbari (International Journal of River Basin Management, 2016)
A 1240-year-long record of reconstructed annual flows of the Colorado River at Lees Ferry is analysed using singular spectrum analysis and multi-taper method of spectral analysis. Spectral analysis of the 100-year-long recent record of annual flows of Colorado River in the measured and reconstructed forms shows similar oscillations in high- and low-frequency bands. Therefore, the oscillatory components and trends extracted from the reconstructed data are a good representative of inter-annual, multi-decadal, and multi-centennial variability of natural flow in the river. In Colorado River the length of flow data is 1240 years and multi-centennial and multi-decadal oscillatory components can be extracted at a high confidence level. In this research we attempt to find whether the changes in streamflow in the twentieth century are due to an external cause such as climate change or whether they are part of the natural variability of flow observed in the past. The results suggest that there is only a part of the linear trend, caused by climate change or man-made effects, and an important part of that is due to climate variability which is believed to be totally natural. The same line of climate variability is still acting on our planet, and it may have gained new aspects due to the change in atmospheric composition and circulation as a result of anthropogenic effects. This may cause serious limitations to the water sustainability and water availability on the earth.

Nesting aggregation as a determinant of brood parasitism in mason bees (Osmia spp.) - A. Groulx (2016)
Identifying forces that affect population dynamics can allow us to better understand the

Effects of Insect Damage to Helianthella quinquenervis (Asteraceae) Inflorescences on Pollinator Visitation - K. Spells (2016)
Plant reproductive success is often influenced by not only direct effects of flower-eating herbivores (florivores) consuming floral tissues, but also the indirect effects of pollinator visitation. Previous literature suggests that florivore damage can negatively influence pollinator visitation, consequently having both direct and indirect effects on plant reproductive fitness. Studies have also shown that conspecific and heterospecific floral density can increase or decrease pollinator visitation. Here I determine the effects of inflorescence damage on pollinator visitation rate of a common perennial native to the Rocky Mountains, the aspen sunflower (Helianthella quinquenervis, Asteraceae). Damage on both the ray florets and disk florets of the sunflowers were found to decrease visitation of their two most common pollinators, bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and Muscid flies (Muscidae). Visitation rate was also observed for co-flowering heterospecifics of Helianthella within 1x1 meter observation plots to determine if damaged sunflower inflorescences influenced the visitation of blooming neighbors. However, data was insufficient to observe any effects. With Helianthella experiencing phenological shifts due to climate change—blooming earlier in early snowmelt years—floral abundance has declined due to frost susceptibility (Inouye 2008). Given that florivore damage also directly and indirectly affects plant fitness, it may be possible that Helianthella will experience an accelerated decline in abundance due to and increase in florivore competition and a decrease in pollinator visitation.

Do Social Interactions Decrease Basal Stress Levels In Breeding Female Yellow-Bellied Marmots? - X. Ortiz Ross (2016)
In order for sociality to exist, the benefits must outweigh the costs. Benefits include better territorial defense, co-operative foraging, and predator avoidance. Costs include increased disease transmission, intraspecific competition for resources or mates, and reproductive suppression. One way to examine the costs and benefits of group living is to assess the impact of social stressors on basal glucocorticoid (GC) levels. In certain species, social interactions such as grooming have been shown to decrease basal GC levels. Since elevated levels of GC have been shown to increase mortality and decrease reproductive rates, decreased stress levels could be a benefit of social living. We investigated whether social interactions decreased stress levels in breeding female yellow-bellied marmots. We found that relationship strength, not the number of relationships, decreased stress levels in females both before and soon after their litter emergence, supporting our hypothesis that decreased basal stress levels can be a benefit of social group living.

Use of Low Quality Pollen by Asteraceae-Specialist Osmia Mason Bees (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) - S. Killingsworth (2016)

The Role of Alpine Wetlands as Hot Spots of Dissolved Organic Carbon in the East River, Colorado - G. Rainaldi (2016)
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is a critical chemical attribute of freshwater systems, affecting nutrient availability, toxicity and solubility of metals, and biological activity via the absorption of light and microbial consumption of O2 during DOC mineralization. Although DOC contributions to streams are distributed across the landscape in the shallow subsurface, many studies have demonstrated area-outsized contributions from riparian zones with high biological productivity and low subsurface O2 concentrations. In the East River, CO, a high-elevation watershed located in the central Rocky Mountains, initial observations show that DOC concentrations of two tributaries, Rock Creek and Gothic Creek, are elevated by 2.5-8.9 times compared to concentrations in the main East River and its other tributaries. These elevated concentrations are qualitatively linked to the unique presence of large wetlands in the headwaters of Rock and Gothic creeks, which due to potential anoxic conditions, experience reduced rates of organic matter decomposition and serve as an elevated source of DOC. In this study we quantify the cycling of organic matter in these wetlands and their area-outsized contributions to East River DOC fluxes. We present concentration profiles of DOC along stream reaches and along subsurface flowpaths that span the transition from hillslope to wetland coupled with high-resolution mapping of chronically-saturated zones and calculate area-weighted fluxes of DOC from wetlands to Rock and Gothic creeks at multiple times through the 2016 growing season. Additionally, soil and groundwater DOC fluxes are compared with depth-resolved organic carbon content from soil cores and soil surface CO2 fluxes to evaluate organic carbon budgets in the hillslope and wetland areas feeding Rock Creek. The characterization of these hotspots of DOC generation and transport in the East River is vital to the ability to predict nutrient cycling changes into the future.

Mysteries of road dust: Does road dust influence flower lifespan in scarlet gilia? - D. Lopez (2016)
This study aims to explore the exciting mysteries of road dust. In the beautiful Rocky Mountains, at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in western Colorado, there is an amazing diversity of plants, but one in particular near unpaved roads is Ipomopsis aggregata, Scarlet gilia, a perennial flowering plant. In this paper I unveil the effects that road dust has on the stigma closure rates on Ipomopsis aggregata. To find out this mystery, armed with a hand lens and a duster, I keep track of 216 individual flowers to see the influence of road dust. Interestingly, road dust decreases floral lifespan, and female longevity. The stigma position in these flowers also plays a role in the floral lifespan of this plant, with weather having surprising effect. With all these factors, the evidence suggests that road dust influences stigma closure rates, and therefore influence the pollen loads.

Behavioral strategies of golden-mantled ground squirrels, Callospermophilus lateralis - Francis, James (2016)
Observational studies of behavior provide insight into the fitness consequences of varying behavioral strategies in mammals. The behavior of golden-mantled ground squirrels (Callospermophilus lateralis, GMGS), an asocial hibernating species, is constrained by the energetic demands of reproduction, predator avoidance, and a short active season. This study used activity budgets, compiled through daily observations of the GMGS population in Gothic, Colorado throughout the active seasons of 2015 and 2016, to quantify responses to variations in demands for survival across ages and sexes. The percentages of time spent alert and foraging were examined in four groups: adult males, adult females, all adults, and juveniles. The activity budgets of reproductive females were also compared to those of non-reproductive females. Juveniles were found to spend a significantly greater portion of their time foraging than adults (P < 0.01). This effect may be due to the time-constrained pressure to store fat for hibernation. Adult females spent more time alert than males (P = 0.02), and reproductive females spent more time alert than non-reproductive females (P = 0.03). While other behavioral comparisons (foraging ~ sex, foraging ~ reproductive status, alertness ~ age) were not significant, there appears to be a correlation between average body mass and alertness in juvenile males. Future studies might focus on comparisons of temporal variability in activity between different age and sex classes of GMGS in order to account for reproduction-driven fluctuations in behavior and body mass during the active season.

Comparing clines in floral and vegetative traits along an elevation gradient in an Ipomopsis hybrid zone - A. Faidiga (2016)
Gene flow in hybrid zones acts as a barrier to speciation, yet we still see cases in which separate hybridizing species are maintained. Selection for different floral traits at each end of a hybrid zone by pollinators and for different vegetative traits by environmental gradients are two possible sources of selection that could maintain different allele frequencies at different locations within a hybrid zone. In this study we measured five floral traits and three vegetative traits along an elevational gradient in an Ipomopsis hybrid zone and calculated their resultant clines to test predictions about selective forces that drive speciation and maintain species differences between I. aggregata populations at lower elevations and I. tenuituba populations at higher elevations within the hybrid zone. Corolla length increased with elevation, while corolla width, nectar production, relative redness and specific leaf area (SLA) decreased. The narrowest cline was in corolla length (w=0.12 km), followed by flower color, nectar production and corolla width (w=0.43, 0.97, and 1.4 km, respectively) while the widest cline was in SLA (w=1.7 km). Cline centers were all similarly located along the hybrid zone with the exception of nectar production which was centered closer to the low elevation I. aggregata sites. The similarity of these clines’ centers for all floral traits besides nectar production is consistent with a shift in the pollination regime approximately midway down the hybrid zone. Combined with past pollination research in this hybrid zone, the narrower clines in floral traits than in vegetative traits suggest that speciation is mainly driven by selection for longer, narrower, paler flowers at higher elevations by hawkmoths and shorter, wider, redder flowers at lower elevations by hummingbirds.

Bill Morphology and Niche Partitioning in Selasphorus platycercus - I. Chen (2016)
It has often been stated that the bill shape of hummingbirds is an example of ecological adaptation, as the morphology of their bills are strongly associated with flower nectar resources (Bleiweiss 1999). ​ Broadtailed hummingbirds (​Selasphorus platycercus) are considered the most characteristic hummingbird of the Rocky Mountain region (Grant & Grant 1968). At the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL) in Gothic, Colorado, the ecology and behavior of Broadtailed hummingbirds have been studied, but the reason behind why Broadtailed hummingbirds visit specific flowers has yet to be thoroughly examined. To explore this question, we caught a total of 198 Broadtailed hummingbirds in the summer of 2016 and measured their bill length, width, and curvature. We found that females have significantly longer, wider, and curvier bills. In addition, we examined the association between sex and flower visitation using pollen swabs as a proxy for flower visitation. A total of 13 species of pollen were found on bodies of hummingbirds. Through examining the visitation rate across these 13 species of pollen, we found potential for niche partitioning between sexes.

Analyzing the effect of climate change on Boechera stricta seed germination and fitness along an elevational gradient - J. Adachi (2016)
Climate change alters many biotic and abiotic factors in environments around the world. At higher elevations in particular, climate change brings warmer mean temperatures, reduced snowpack, earlier snowmelt, and more extreme drought. In this study, we analyzed the effect of early snow removal on Boechera stricta seed germination and establishment along an elevational gradient. We predicted that climate change would alter long-standing patterns of local adaptation by favoring seeds from hot and dry low elevation populations (whose current climate reflects the future climate in higher elevation locations). In 2014, the Anderson lab planted B. stricta seeds with 200 distinct genotypes into five common gardens at differing elevations (2530m to 3340m) in Gothic Valley in Colorado and subjected half of the seeds to an early snow removal treatment. We found the lowest germination and establishment success at the most stressful site (2530m) where hot and dry conditions severely restricted seed germination. Local adaptation was more apparent in the mid-elevation gardens (2710m, 2890m) where seeds from lower elevation families had a higher probability of germination than those from higher elevations. At one of the mid-elevation sites (2890m), the snow removal treatment eliminated evidence for local adaptation. Local adaptation was also evident in a higher elevation garden (3133m) such that germination success actually increased with source elevation under control treatments. However, as predicted, snow removal completely disrupted local adaptation there, favoring lower elevation genotypes. In the current experiment, we found no evidence for local adaptation in the highest garden (3340m). From these data we can see that germination success and fitness are influenced in different ways and to differing degrees based on their environment.

Niche partitioning due to adaptive foraging reverses effects of nestedness and connectance on pollination network stability - F. S. Valdovinos; B. J. Brosi; H. M. Briggs; P. Moisset de Espanes; R. Ramos-Jiliberto; N. D. Martinez (Ecology Letters, 2016)
AbstractMuch research debates whether properties of ecological networks such as nestedness and connectance stabilise biological communities while ignoring key behavioural aspects of organisms within these networks. Here, we computationally assess how adaptive foraging (AF) behaviour interacts with network architecture to determine the stability of plant–pollinator networks. We find thatAFreverses negative effects of nestedness and positive effects of connectance on the stability of the networks by partitioning the niches among species within guilds. This behaviour enables generalist pollinators to preferentially forage on the most specialised of their plant partners which increases the pollination services to specialist plants and cedes the resources of generalist plants to specialist pollinators. We corroborate these behavioural preferences with intensive field observations of bee foraging. Our results show that incorporating key organismal behaviours with well‐known biological mechanisms such as consumer‐resource interactions into the analysis of ecological networks may greatly improve our understanding of complex ecosystems.

Pinedale glacial history of the upper Arkansas River valley - Avriel D. Schweinsberg; Jason P. Briner; Ralph R. Shroba; Joseph M. Licciardi; Eric M. Leonard; Keith A. Brugger; Charles M. Russell (Geological Society of America eBooks, 2016)
This field trip guidebook chapter outlines the glacial history of the upper Arkansas River valley, Colorado, and builds on a previous GSA field trip to the same area in 2010. The following will be presented: (1) new cosmogenic 10Be exposure ages of moraine boulders from the Pinedale and Bull Lake glaciations (Marine Isotope Stages 2 and 6, respectively) located adjacent to the Twin Lakes Reservoir, (2) numerical modeling of glaciers during the Pinedale glaciation in major tributaries draining into the upper Arkansas River, (3) discharge estimates for glacial-lake outburst floods in the upper Arkansas River valley, and (4) 10Be ages on flood boulders deposited downvalley from the moraine sequences. This research was stimulated by a new geologic map of the Granite 7.5’ quadrangle, in which the mapping of surficial deposits was revised based in part on the interpretation of newly acquired LiDAR data and field investigations. The new 10Be ages of the Pinedale terminal moraine at Twin Lakes average 21.8 ± 0.7 ka (n=14), which adds to nearby Pinedale terminal moraine ages of 23.6 ± 1.4 ka (n=5), 20.5 ± 0.2 ka (n=3) and 16.6 ± 1.0 ka, and downvalley outburst flood terraces that date to 20.9 ± 0.9 ka (n=4) and 19.0 ± 0.6 ka (n=4). This growing chronology leads to improved understanding of the controls and timing of glaciation in the western U.S., the modeling of glacial-lake outburst flooding, and the reconstruction of paleo-temperature through glacier modeling.

Discriminating Quartzite Sources Petrographically in the Upper Gunnison Basin, Colorado: Implications for Paleoamerican Lithic-Procurement Studies - Cody L. Dalpra; Bonnie L. Pitblado (PaleoAmerica, 2016)
Archaeologists lack a protocol for systematically attributing quartzite artifacts to particular geologic sources of the material. This paper, in an effort to begin to remedy that situation, reports the preliminary results of a petrographic study of quartzite samples from the Upper Gunnison Basin (UGB), Colorado. In that region, the overwhelming predominance of quartzite (often > 90 per cent) at most archaeological sites has hampered efforts to ascertain with any certainty the mobility strategies of Paleoamerican (and later) residents. In this study, qualitative and quantitative characterization of texture and grain composition of 50 UGB quartzite specimens led to the identification of six statistically distinct groups of samples. The groups are not arbitrary divisions of the data set; rather, they are meaningful from geologic, geospatial, chronological, and human-behavioral perspectives.

Declining recruitment of Gunnison Sage-Grouse highlights the need to monitor juvenile survival - Amy J. Davis; Michael L. Phillips; Paul F. Doherty (The Condor, 2016)
Recruitment of juveniles is an important vital rate that influences population growth and is fundamental to understanding trends in population size. Estimates of recruitment are often focused on the period just after hatching (prefledgling stage), which is typically the lowest survival period and often the most variable. Few studies examine true recruitment—survival from hatching to entering the breeding population—although this information is more relevant to understanding population trends. We studied the recruitment of Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus), a federally threatened species in the U.S., to examine the relative importance of chick and juvenile survival to recruitment patterns. We evaluated recruitment from 2005 to 2010 by combining separate estimates of chick survival (hatching to 30 days of age) and juvenile survival (31 days of age to the start of the first breeding season). To explain variation in these survival rates, we examined the effects of population, individual (i.e. age), and temporal (within-year and among-year differences) factors associated with recruitment of Gunnison Sage-Grouse. The factors that most explained juvenile survival rates were temporal (among-year trends and within-year seasonal effects). Chick survival rates varied by population, and daily chick survival increased with chick age. We found a slight negative trend in chick survival and a strong negative trend in juvenile survival from 2005 to 2010. The overall recruitment rate declined from 0.32 (± 0.09 SE) in 2005 to 0.04 (± 0.03 SE) in 2010. This decline coincided with a decline observed in population index data, which was not reflected in other demographic data. If survival had not been monitored past 30 days of age, estimates of recruitment would have remained relatively stable. This work highlights the importance of monitoring juvenile survival, as it may influence population dynamics.

Running of the buffalo: investigations of the Roberts Ranch Buffalo Jump (5LR100), northern Colorado - Christopher M. Johnston; LaBelle, Jason M.; Pante, Michael C.; Knight, Richard L. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2016)
Since the Roberts Ranch Buffalo Jump (5LR100) was first reported on in 1971, there has been a great deal of research on bison kills and faunal analysis, as well as advancements in analytic techniques, that can now be applied to the collection from the site. Much of the collection was reported in a thesis by Max Witkind in 1971; however, some of these data are being presented here for the first time. The site is dated to approximately between A.D. 1660-1750 and consists of the remains of at minimum 19 bison adult and sub-adult bison, as well as at minimum eight fetal bison. This thesis examines the collection from three different perspectives. It starts by analyzing the non-bone artifact assemblage, which includes different styles of arrow points, at least two different ceramic traditions, and a modified bone assemblage. These data show that much of the past site activities focused on butchery and processing of bison, but other activities were also carried out at the site. The next section utilizes faunal analysis methods not yet developed when the site was first reported to explore the bison assemblage in more detail. This analysis shows some non-cultural impacts to the collection, but largely documents that the bonebed is the result of human butchery and processing decisions. These two data sets are then analyzed spatially. The results show patterned clusters of artifacts around the main bone concentrations, offering new insights on how to incorporate a site structure approach at mass kill sites. Lastly, this thesis illustrates the value of applying new methods to older archaeological collections.

First report of a giant neosuchian (Crocodyliformes) in the Williams Fork Formation (Upper Cretaceous: Campanian) of Colorado - John R. Foster; ReBecca K. Hunt-Foster (Cretaceous Research, 2015)

Lacustrine lithofacies, depositional processes, and diagenesis of the Uteland Butte Member, Green River Formation, eastern Uinta Basin, Utah and Colorado - S. Katherine Logan (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)

Mineralogical controls on the weathering characteristics of arid continental deposits of the Colorado Plateau - Ragnhild Johanne Tunheim (Bergen Open Research Archive (BORA) (University of Bergen), 2015)
The Permian to Jurassic stratigraphy of the Colorado Plateau includes a number of units that were deposited under arid depositional conditions. These units each show distinctive weathering characteristics which cannot solely be attributed to variation in depositional environment or burial history. The stratigraphic units are the Permian Cutler Formation, the Triassic Chinle Formation, the Jurassic Wingate Sandstone, the Kayenta Formation, the Navajo Sandstone, the Slickrock Member and the Moab Member. The objective of this study is to document and explain the differences in weathering pattern observed in these units. Typical slope angles were recorded to quantify weathering profiles. The Moab Member, the Kayenta Formation and the Wingate Sandstone have steep weathering slopes ranging from 70-90°. The main weathering processes are physical weathering leading to the formation of vertical joints and eventually splitting of the rocks. The Slickrock Member, the Navajo Sandstone and the Cutler Formation have lower weathering slopes ranging from 30-55°. These weathering profiles are most likely shaped by both physical and chemical weathering processes, through the process of spheroidal weathering. The weathering profile of the Chinle Formation is characterized by scree and the typical weathering slope is around 30°. The differences in weathering profiles are due to several factors. The first order control is the proportion of sandstone vs mudstone in the stratigraphic units. Sandstone and mudstone act very differently to stress. Sandstone responds in a more brittle way to stress than mudstones and consequently more mud rich units, such as the Chinle Formation, tend to be associated with scree slopes. The second order control is the dominant cement type in the stratigraphic units. Stratigraphic units with low and rounded weathering slopes are dominated by carbonate cement, while the steeper intervals are dominated by quartz cement. Carbonates are more easily dissolved when subject to chemical weathering and units with abundant carbonate cement will produce spheroidal outcrops. The weathering pattern can aslo be affected by external processes on a large scale, such processes can be river erosion or removal of underlying rock units. These processes can explain lateral differences in sandstones weathering patterns over short distances.

Does locomotor ability influence flight initiation distance in yellow-bellied marmots? - Daniel T. Blumstein; G. Flores; N. E. Munoz (Ethology, 2015)
Flight initiation distance (FID) is the distance between a potential threat and the point at which a potential prey flees. Animals may modify their FID to compensate for increased risk generated by external/extrinsic factors such as habitat type, visibility, group size, time of year, predator-approach velocity, and distance to burrow, as well as internal/intrinsic factors such as physical condition, body temperature, crypsis, and morphological antipredator defenses. The intrinsic speed at which an animal can escape a predator is a factor that should influence FID. We studied the relationship between an individual's intrinsic escape speed and FID in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) to determine whether marmots compensated for slower escape speeds by fleeing at greater distances. We found no evidence of risk compensation. Rather, we found that slower marmots tolerated closer approaches. This behavioral syndrome may be explained by a coevolution of FID and escape speed in determining an individual's antipredator behavior, an idea upon which we expand.

Stress hormone metabolites predict overwinter survival in yellow-bellied marmots - T. W. Wey; L. Lin; M. L. Patton; Daniel T. Blumstein (Acta Ethologica, 2015)

Impacts of climate change on the formation and stability of late Quaternary sand sheets and falling dunes, Black Mesa region, southern Colorado Plateau, USA - Amy L. Ellwein; Shannon A. Mahan; Leslie D. McFadden (Quaternary International, 2015)

Multi‐decadal Stochastic Streamflow Projections and Application to Water Resources Decision Making in the Colorado River Basin - Solomon Tassew Erkyihun (CU Scholar (University of Colorado Boulder), 2015)
Effective water resources planning and management requires skillful decisions on multiyear or decadal timeframes. In basins such as the Colorado River Basin (CRB), streamflow is not stationary but exhibits variability that reflects teleconnections with large scale climate indices such as Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). This research addresses this problem with four main contributions: It develops a stochastic streamflow simulation model and decadal scale streamflow projections based on these climate indices, compares this with other models recently developed, identifies and quantifies periods of unpredictability, and demonstrates the value of adding decadal scale projections to existing decision criteria in the CRB Supply and Demand Study (Basin Study). The novel WKNN model identifies and reconstructs dominant signals in the AMO and PDO using wavelet analysis, simulates each using block K-nearest neighbor (K-NN) bootstrap, then simulates the streamflow using a K-NN bootstrap conditioned on the simulated climate forcings. Traditional methods develop similar models on the flow timeseries and have limited skill in projections. Here, the climate indices are modeled and streamflow generated conditionally, exploiting the skill in climate indices. Our WKNN model is compared with other recently developed methods – Conditional Hidden Markov Model and the enhanced wavelet autoregressive model – with respect to skill of projections over a range of lead times. To understand and quantify the time-varying predictability of streamflow, we recover the underlying dynamics using a nonlinear dynamical system based approach. Time varying iv predictability is assessed by quantifying the divergence of trajectories in the phase space with time, using Local Lyapunov Exponents (LLE). Ensembles of projections from a current time are generated by block resampling trajectories from the K-nearest neighbors of the current vector in the phase space. Decadal scale WKNN projections and time varying predictabilities indicated by LLE are demonstrated to enhance existing decision criteria in the CRB Study that identify system vulnerability and invoke options and strategies to increase water availability or reduce demand through conservation or efficiency. Based on projections being wet, dry or unpredictable, improved decisions may reduce cost or reduce shortage and are illustrated by tradeoff curves of risk of shortage vs. cost.

Direct and Indirect Consequences of Climate Change on Net Ecosystem Exchange. - P. Meidl (2015)

Effects of experimental warming on herbivory and pathogen loads on subalpine grass species Festuca thurberi, Poa pratensis, and Achnatherum lettermanii - Nisreen Abo-Sido (2015)
Rising global temperatures are predicted to alter community dynamics by shifting species ranges and altering biotic interactions. Herbivory is expected to increase with prolonged growing seasons and heightened metabolic rates; pathogen damage may increase as well. We predict that damage by herbivores and pathogens on subalpine grass species Festuca thurberi, Poa pratensis, and Achnatherum lettermanii will increase with warming. Comparisons of estimated percent herbivory on these species in a meadow containing plots subject to experimental warming by infrared heaters and alternating ambient control plots revealed some evidence of increasing herbivory with warming and, thus, increased vulnerability of plants to the indirect effect of global warming of rising herbivore activity.

Habitat Selection in Nicrophoryus investigator and defodiens. - K. Menzel (2015)
We investigated habitat selection in Nicrophorus investigator, an obligate carrion breeder. The source-sink hypothesis states that some environments will be resource rich and produce a high amount of offspring while other environments will be resource low and produce a low amount of offspring. Carcasses were put out in pairs with one carcass in the meadow and one in the aspen. N. investigator and N. defodiens prefer the meadow to the aspen, the size of the Nicrophorus beetles was larger in the meadow than the aspen, competition was higher in the aspen than in the meadow, and the only successful broods were in the meadow. All of these support that the meadow and aspen are source and sink environments respectively.

How does relative refuge angle influence escape behavior: an empirical test with yellow-bellied marmot. - K. Wrenford (2015)
Flight initiation distance, or FID, is the distance between a predator and its prey at which the prey decides to flee. FID is influenced by several internal and external factors, which influence the potential costs and benefits of escape. For refuging prey, their path to a refuge may force them to get closer to the prey or permit them to flee the approaching predator. If the prey assesses the risk of fleeing towards a predator to be greater than when fleeing away from a predator, FID when fleeing towards a predator to a refuge would be expected to be larger. The relative position between predator, prey, and a refuge creates an angle called the relative refuge angle, or RRA. A recent model uses these variables to predict FID. Using yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris), we evaluated the efficacy of this model in predicting FID, and then asked how much variation in FID was explained by RRA. We found, that although the model successfully predicted FID in our data, RRA had almost no effect on the overall variation in FID. Therefore, RRA may not be an important factor to marmots making escape decisions.

Effects of Bombus Pollinator Removal on Fly Foraging Behavior. - Z. Pouncey (2015)
Native Bombus species are in decline in the United States. Since pollinators are such integral species in a system, the extinction of a single Bombus species could potentially have far reaching consequences on crop production and plant reproduction necessary for species diversity ad agriculture. However, there are studies to suggest that other pollinators would fill the niche of the most abundant Bombus in a system should that Bombus become extinct (Memmott et al. 2004). This study examines how Diptera fly pollinators in a system react to the removal of a single Bombus species. I hypothesized that Diperta pollinators will expand their foraging range in the absence of the most abundant Bombus species. By comparing fly behavior in controlled and manipulated (experimental species removal) states, I observed a change in fly foraging that was supported by the data analysis. This study confirmed my hypothesis showing a correlation between fly foraging and the removal of the most abundant Bombus species.

Environmental Correlates and Fitness Consequences of a Flower Color Polymorphism in Boechera stricta. - Ansley McDurmon (2015)

Investigating Herbivore Relationships to Boechera stricta in a Climate Change Context. - L. Schumm (2015)
Boechera stricta is a mustard that grows naturally throughout a wide range of altitudes in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. B. stricta has a variety of natural herbivores, which makes it an interesting system in which to study how plant-herbivore relationships vary over an elevational gradient. Through this study we begin to characterize the relationships between Boechera stricta and its surrounding insect herbivore community. We sampled the insect community surrounding B. stricta in a collection of quadrats, and analyzed how the diversity and abundance of these insects varied across an elevational gradient. We analyzed the insect community as a whole, and conducted with more pointed analyses focusing on insects in taxonomical groupings known to herbivorize plants. Other variables affecting insect diversity were also taken into account such as the density of plant cover at each site. We found that insect diversity decreases as elevation increases, and that insect diversity increases as plant cover density increases as well. This study has laid important groundwork for future studies on herbivore-B. stricta relationships in the context of climate change.

Pigmentation as stress response in A. septentrionalis. - A. Linder (2015)

Does Bumble Bee Diet Breadth vary with the Floral Abundance in a Meadow? - G. Hennage (2015)
Years of early snowmelt tend to have a decrease in floral abundance throughout the year. This causes flowers to be more susceptible to frost and drought stress. Based on which flowers are successful this can affect bumble bee diet breadth due to the direct correlation between bumble bee proboscis length and flower corolla length. It was found that there is no relation between Bombus appositus diet breadth and floral abundance. Other factors such as floral richness, and overall bumble bee abundance also proved to not have an influence on diet breadth. The relationship between Delphinium barbeyi abundance and the proportion of flowers visited also did not have any significance.

Paleoecology of Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, Utah: Human impacts on landscape and implications for resource management on the southern Colorado Plateau - Robert M. D'Andrea; R. B. Anderson; Kenneth L. Cole; Matthew K. Zweifel (Quaternary International, 2015)

How an environment's moisture heterogeneity affects a community's traits - Lake Crawford (2015)
A plant’s functional traits, which aid with survival, growth, and reproduction, are shaped by different abiotic and evolutionary elements. Some communities have a larger degree of variation in their functional traits, and this study aimed to see if this variation is directly linked to the level of environmental heterogeneity. This was accomplished by looking at differing traits of plant communities at 5 different sites. The analyzed traits were SLA, LDMC, and plant height. These traits were plotted against the environmental variation (as determined by soil moisture or microclimate) to determine if there was a correlation between the two. The data indicate that there is a positive correlation between the log(sd of LDMC) and the mean sd of soil moisture, but there is no correlation between the log(sd of height) or log(sd of SLA) and the mean sd of soil moisture. This demonstrates that, in some cases, a wider range of functional diversity can be driven by greater environmental heterogeneity.

Adaptation to climate and climate change in Rocky Mountain butterflies: Morphology, physiology, and behavior - H. J. MacLean (2015)
Heidi Joan MacLean: ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN BUTTERFLIES: MORPHOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR (Under the direction of Joel G. Kingsolver and Lauren B. Buckley)

Relating Pollinator Foraging Behavior to Potential for Self-fertilization in Delphenium barbeyi Different Floral Display Sizes. - C. Whiting (2015)

The effect of the foresummer drought on carbon exchange in subalpine meadows - L. L. Sloat; A. N. Henderson; C. A. Lamanna; Brian J. Enquist (Ecosystems, 2015)
Climate in subalpine meadows of the Rocky growing season drought conditions. Manipulating Mountains can be characterized by an early (fore- the strength of the foresummer drought by watering summer) drought that occurs after snowmelt (May) revealed that the timing of growing season pre- and lasts until the start of the summer monsoon cipitation is more important than the total amount season (July). Climate change models predict an for determining cumulative NEP. The strength of the increase in the length and severity of this dry period foresummer drought did not significantly impact due to earlier snowmelt dates, rising air tem- ecosystem respiration rates, but plants that experi- peratures, and shifts in the start and/or intensity of enced a strong foresummer drought exhibited more the North American monsoon. However, it is un- water stress, and lower instantaneous rates of NEP, known how changes in the severity of this early even during the rainy season. Our results highlight season dry period will affect ecosystem carbon ex- the central role of the foresummer drought in de- change. To address the importance of early season termining rates of carbon exchange throughout the drought, we combined a watering manipulation growing season, and the potential for an increas- with 11 years of ecosystem carbon exchange data ingly negative balance of carbon in subalpine across an elevational gradient at the Rocky Moun- meadows under future climate change. tain Biological Laboratory in Gothic, Colorado. Long-term trends reveal that earlier snowmelt dates Key words: climate change; sualpine; NEP; fore- lead to a decrease in net ecosystem productivity summer drought; elevation gradient; watering (NEP), in part because of the positive effect on early manipulation.

Plant selection of mycorrhizal symbionts in response to abiotic stress. - M. Garrett (2015)

Scale collapse and the emergence of the power law species–area relationship - M. Wilber; J. Kitzes; J. Harte (Global Ecology and Biogeography, 2015)
AbstractAimThe recently proposed maximum entropy theory of ecology predicts that all nested species–area relationships (SARs) will collapse to a single, universal curve that exhibits a decreasing log–log slope with increasing scale, suggesting that the power law form of the SAR is invalid at any scale. In this analysis we test the generality of this scale collapse behaviour and determine the scale at which approximate power law behaviour of the SAR is predicted to occur.LocationGlobal.MethodsWe use common SAR models to recursively upscale SARs to (1) look for scale collapse of SARs built from different community assumptions and (2) identify the scale at which approximate power law SARs are recovered. We explore four SAR models in which species abundance distributions and the spatial aggregation of species vary within and across scales according to observed patterns.ResultsWe show that scale collapse is a property of nested SARs, not of maximum entropy theory, and that many types of SARs can exhibit scale‐collapsed curves that follow the general pattern of empirical communities. Moreover, we use the scale‐collapsed curves to show that power law behaviour is not predicted to occur at the scale of most SAR studies and that variation in species spatial aggregation or the scaling of species abundance distributions are needed to produce power law SARs at realistic scales.Main conclusionsOur findings show that power law behaviour of nested SARs is rare and that communities displaying approximate power law SARs may exhibit predictable characteristics within and across scale, such as interspecific variation in aggregation. Our findings regarding the general rarity of power law behaviour suggests that careful consideration of the curvature of a SAR and the scale of an ecological community are necessary before using power law SARs to predict biodiversity across scales.

Lack of sex-specific differences in mycorrhizal associations and response to herbivory in the gynodioecious herb, Polemonium foliosissimum - J. B. Gonzalez; G. Clarke; Alison K. Brody (Plant Ecology, 2015)

Nectar yeasts in Delphinium nuttallianum (Ranunculaceae) and their effects on nectar quality - R. N. Schaeffer; R. L. Vannette; R. E. Irwin (Fungal Ecology, 2015)

Evolution of herbivory in Drosophilidae linked to loss of behaviors, antennal responses, odorant receptors and ancestral diet - R. J. Mitchell; R. L. Lapoint; C. P. Faucher; J. G. Hildebrand; Noah K Whiteman (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 2015)
SignificanceThe evolution of herbivory in animals is rare but has resulted in major adaptive radiations. Its rarity suggests that there are barriers to colonization of plants. Behavioral adaptations, involving host plant finding, are likely the first to evolve during the transition to herbivory. A recently evolved herbivorous fly species was derived from yeast-feeding ancestors. This herbivorous fly, unlike its yeast-feeding relatives, lost attraction to yeast volatiles, the ability to detect yeast volatiles, and three genes that encode olfactory receptors critical for detecting yeast volatiles inDrosophila melanogaster. Loss-of-function mutations may play a role in the transition to herbivory in insects, which account for nearly 25% of all species of life.

Do yellow-bellied marmots perceive enhanced predation risk when they are farther from safety?: an experimental study - R. Monclus; A. M. Anderson; Daniel T. Blumstein (Ethology, 2015)

Studies of minerals from Hall's Valley, Park County, Colorado – Chemistry of cupropavonites (5,5) ( 5,5P) and (4,6) ( 4,6P): crystal structure of natural pavonite and crystal structure of orthorhombic berryite - William G. Mumme; Robert W. Gable; Nick Wilson (Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie - Abhandlungen, 2015)

Causes and consequences of plant responses to environmental change over physiological, ecological, and evolutionary time. - L. L. Sloat (2015)

The ecology of co-infection in the phyllosphere: unraveling the interactions between microbes, insect herbivores, and the host plants they share. - Parris T Humphrey (2015)

Group size affects social relationships in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) - Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro; L. Hubbard; Daniel T. Blumstein (Behavioral Ecology, 2015)

Context-dependent reproductive isolation mediated by floral scent and color - Mascha Bischoff; Robert A. Raguso; A. Jurgens; Diane R. Campbell (Evolution, 2015)

Are social attributes associated with alarm calling propensity? - H. Fuong; Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro; Daniel T. Blumstein (Behavioral Ecology, 2015)
Emitting alarm calls may directly benefit individuals if callers have an increased chance of surviving, if calling increases the caller’s status, or if calling functions through reciprocity. Although previous studies have examined the costs and benefits of alarm calling, few have examined how an individual’s social position can influence the propensity to emit calls. An individual’s position in its social network may vary and individuals differ in the strength and degree to which they are connected to others. We hypothesized that this variation could influence the rate at which individuals emit calls. We examined how various social attributes (degree centrality, closeness centrality, eigenvector centrality, strength, and embeddedness) were related to the likelihood that yellow-bellied marmots ( Marmota flaviventris ) emitted calls. To do so, we first defined 2 principle components—“popularity” and “relationship strength”—and used generalized linear mixed effects models to explain both the natural rate of alarm calling and the rate of trap-induced calling. We found that the natural rate of alarm calling increased for marmots that were less popular (i.e., involved in fewer connections with other marmots) and that the rate of trap-induced calling increased for marmots involved in weaker relationships. These findings refute the reciprocity hypothesis. However, less popular marmots could be seeking to enhance their social status by calling, or they could be deterring predators without the aid of others. Similarly, marmots in traps are faced with an imminent personal threat. Thus, marmots in weaker relationships that cannot rely on other marmots may call to deter predators.

The evolutionary ecology of ultraviolet floral pigmentation - M. H. Koski (2015)

A restraining device to aid identification of bees by digital photography - J. D. Thompson; J. L. Zung (Journal of Pollination Ecology, 2015)

Propagating climate and vegetation change through the hydrologic cycle in a mountain headwaters catchment. - C. E. Pribulick (2015)
Prediction of hydrologic response to global climate change is paramount for regions that rely upon snowpack for their dominant water supply. Temperature increases are anticipated to be greater at higher elevations perturbing headwaters systems that provide water to millions of downstream users. In this study, the relationships between climatic change and associated vegetation succession with the corresponding response in hydrologic processes of mountainous terrain are studied in the East River headwaters catchment near Crested Butte, CO. This catchment is emblematic of other headwater systems within the upper Colorado River basin. Therefore, perturbations seen at this study site are likely to occur across the region, altering the water quantity and quality of the Colorado River. Here, we study the effect of climate-induced changes on the hydrologic response of three different characteristic components of the catchment: a steep high-energy mountain system, a medium-grade lower-energy system and a low- grade low-energy meandering floodplain. To capture the surface and subsurface heterogeneity of this headwaters system the basin has been modeled at a 10-meter resolution using ParFlow, a parallel, integrated hydrologic model. This model assesses hydrologic scenarios based on worst-case Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate projections and an estimated worst-case scenario vegetation change observed in a warming experiment conducted in the watershed. Changes in ground evaporation, evapotranspiration (ET) snow water equivalent (SWE), and discharge are analyzed as these catchment characteristics provide useful insight into hydrologic iii response. It was found that each component responded differently depending on its inherent orographic location and geologic features. It was also found that the inclusion of vegetation change enhanced the hydrologic changes from the vegetation or warming scenarios alone. Overall, the results show decreases in discharge, shifts in the timing of peak runoff, and prolonged periods of soil moisture declines, all of which can have negative implications for water quality, quantity and vegetative productivity. iv

Genes Suggest Ancestral Colour Polymorphisms Are Shared across Morphologically Cryptic Species in Arctic Bumblebees - S. T. Williams; A. M. Byvaltsev; B. Cederberg; M. V. Berezin; F. Odegaard; C. Rasmussen; L. L. Richardson; J. Huang; C. S. Sheffield; S. T. Williams (PLoS One, 2015)
Our grasp of biodiversity is fine-tuned through the process of revisionary taxonomy. If species do exist in nature and can be discovered with available techniques, then we expect these revisions to converge on broadly shared interpretations of species. But for the primarily arctic bumblebees of the subgenus Alpinobombus of the genus Bombus, revisions by some of the most experienced specialists are unusual for bumblebees in that they have all reached different conclusions on the number of species present. Recent revisions based on skeletal morphology have concluded that there are from four to six species, while variation in colour pattern of the hair raised questions as to whether at least seven species might be present. Even more species are supported if we accept the recent move away from viewing species as morphotypes to viewing them instead as evolutionarily independent lineages (EILs) using data from genes. EILs are recognised here in practice from the gene coalescents that provide direct evidence for their evolutionary independence. We show from fitting both general mixed Yule/coalescent (GMYC) models and Poisson-tree-process (PTP) models to data for the mitochondrial COI gene that there is support for nine species in the subgenus Alpinobombus. Examination of the more slowly evolving nuclear PEPCK gene shows further support for a previously unrecognised taxon as a new species in northwestern North America. The three pairs of the most morphologically similar sister species are separated allopatrically and prevented from interbreeding by oceans. We also find that most of the species show multiple shared colour patterns, giving the appearance of mimicry among parts of the different species. However, reconstructing ancestral colour-pattern states shows that speciation is likely to have cut across widespread ancestral polymorphisms, without or largely without convergence. In the particular case of Alpinobombus, morphological, colour-pattern, and genetic groups show little agreement, which may help to explain the lack of agreement among previous taxonomic revisions.

Altered Fire Regimes and the Persistence of Quaking Aspen in the Rocky Mountains: A Literature Review - Aaron Rosenblum (Open Journal of Forestry, 2015)
The persistence of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) is of significant importance to land managers in the Rocky Mountain region. Fire suppression in the past century has been im- plicated as a mechanism influencing aspen population dynamics, as aspen are generally consi- dered an early seral disturbance adapted species. The heterogeneity of aspen community assem- blages and fire regimes makes it difficult to discern what the result of fire suppression has been at large spatial and temporal scales. Decision makers should investigate the questions at hand at the stand level in their study location to best determine the mechanisms at play, as well as consider future potential changes to the system.

Population-level consequences of phenotypic plasticity in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris). - Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro (2015)

Skill Assessment of Water Supply Outlooks in the Colorado River Basin - Brent Harrison; Roger Bales (Hydrology, 2015)
Water-supply outlooks that predict the April through July (snowmelt) runoff and assist in estimating the total water-year runoff, are very important to users that rely on the major contributing watersheds of the Colorado River. This study reviewed the skill level of April through July forecasts at 28 forecast points within the Colorado River basin. All the forecasts were made after 1950, with considerable variation in time period covered. Evaluations of the forecasts were made using summary measures, correlation measures and categorical measures. The summary measure, a skill score for mean absolute error, indicated a steady increase in forecast skill through the forecast season of January to May. The width of the distribution for each monthly forecast over the 28 locations remained similar through the forecast season. The Nash-Sutcliffe score, a correlation measure, showed similar results, with the Nash-Sutcliffe median showing an increase from 0.4 to 0.8 during the forecast season. The categorical measures used a three-section partition of the April through July runoff. The Probability of Detection for low and high flows showed an increase in skill from approx. 0.4 to 0.8 during the forecast season. The same score for mid-flow years showed limited increase in skill. The low False Alarm Rate illustrated the under forecast of high-flow years. The Bias of the mid-runoff forecasts indicated over forecast early in the forecast season (January to March), with lower Bias later in the forecast season (April and May), ending the forecast season at 1.0, indicating no Bias. Forecasts for both low and high runoff were under forecast early in the season with a Bias near 0.5, improving to nearly 1.0 by the end of the forecast season. The Hit Rate measure illustrated the difficulty of mid-flow forecasts, starting at 0.5 in January and increasing to 0.75 in May due to the forecasting assumption of normal climatology for the remaining forecast period. There was no relationship between basin elevation and forecast skill, reflecting the snow vs. rain dominance in all basins.

Timing is everything: Phenological change and the implications for plants, pollinators and their interactions. - Z. J. Gezon (2015)

Quantifying within-season floral trait distributions of flowers in Colorado Rocky Mountain sub-alpine dry meadows. - K. Wyatt (2015)

Effects of increased flight on the energetics and life history of the butterfly Speyeria mormonia - K. Niitepold; C. L. Boggs (PLoS One, 2015)
Movement uses resources that may otherwise be allocated to somatic maintenance or reproduction. How does increased energy expenditure affect resource allocation? Using the butterfly Speyeria mormonia, we tested whether experimentally increased flight affects fecundity, lifespan or flight capacity. We measured body mass (storage), resting metabolic rate and lifespan (repair and maintenance), flight metabolic rate (flight capacity), egg number and composition (reproduction), and food intake across the adult lifespan. The flight treatment did not affect body mass or lifespan. Food intake increased sufficiently to offset the increased energy expenditure. Total egg number did not change, but flown females had higher early-life fecundity and higher egg dry mass than control females. Egg dry mass decreased with age in both treatments. Egg protein, triglyceride or glycogen content did not change with flight or age, but some components tracked egg dry mass. Flight elevated resting metabolic rate, indicating increased maintenance costs. Flight metabolism decreased with age, with a steeper slope for flown females. This may reflect accelerated metabolic senescence from detrimental effects of flight. These effects of a drawdown of nutrients via flight contrast with studies restricting adult nutrient input. There, fecundity was reduced, but flight capacity and lifespan were unchanged. The current study showed that when food resources were abundant, wing-monomorphic butterflies living in a continuous meadow landscape resisted flight-induced stress, exhibiting no evidence of a flight-fecundity or flight-longevity trade-off. Instead, flight changed the dynamics of energy use and reproduction as butterflies adopted a faster lifestyle in early life. High investment in early reproduction may have positive fitness effects in the wild, as long as food is available. Our results help to predict the effect of stressful conditions on the life history of insects living in a changing world.

Effects of Alpine Shrub Cover on Territorial Male White-Crown Sparrows Densities. - E. Nault (2015)
Avian populations at high elevation are well-adapted to extreme and variable abiotic conditions. Species have adapted efficient foraging strategies, as well as well-timed nest incubation patterns. These behavioral traits are essential in order for parents to meet their metabolic needs while simultaneously having a successful reproductive season. Alpine vegetation structure can be seen as a determinant for a species’ success, or overall abundance due to gap structure and efficient foraging opportunities. Alpine environments consist largely of fragmented vegetation due to steep elevation gradients. Yet, alpine bird populations historically have preferred dense and protective vegetative structures. This study investigates the relationship at singing male white-crowned sparrow densities and percent willow (Salix spp.) cover between three alpine sites located across the Elk Mountain Range, Colorado. Post-migratory sparrow males pair with a female, breed, and establish delineated territory borders by singing. For the mountain white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha; MWCS), space availability between willow thickets may act as a driving factor in the species’ overall abundance. A negative correlation between number of singing males and percent willow cover indicates alpine populations of MWCS actually prefer fragmented willow cover. Possible explanations for this finding could include (1) greater accessibility to dietary resources between willow thickets, (2) greater solar exposure and thermal warming for a nest not nestled in a dense willow’s canopy cover, or (3) an overall decrease in predatory risk and edge effects within alpine environments. This study holds important climate change implications. By analyzing changes in vegetation structure over time we can determine if vegetative health is ultimately affecting the adaptability of mountain white-crowned sparrow populations. 3

Competition for pollination and the evolution of flowering time - Nickolas M. Waser; Nickolas M. Waser (American Naturalist, 2015)
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Caddisfly Larval growth and Development as Functions of Temperature Fluctuations During Pond Drying. - M. E. Smith (2015)

Scaling from traits to ecosystems: Developing a general trait driver theory via integrating trait-based and metabolic scaling theories - Brian J. Enquist; J. Norberg; S. P. Bonser; C. Violle; Campbell O. Webb; A. N. Henderson; L. L. Sloat; V. M. Savage (Advances in Ecological Research, 2015)

A mutualistic endophyte alters the niche dimensions of its host plant - Melanie R Kazenel; C. L. Debban; L. B. Ranelli; W. Hendricks; Y. Y. Chung; T. Pendergast; N. D. Charlton; C. Young; Jennifer A. Rudgers (AoB Plants, 2015)
Mutualisms can play important roles in influencing species coexistence and determining community composition. However, few studies have tested whether such interactions can affect species distributions by altering the niches of partner species. In subalpine meadows of the Rocky Mountains, USA, we explored whether the presence of a fungal endophyte (genus Epichloë) may shift the niche of its partner plant, marsh bluegrass (Poa leptocoma) relative to a closely related but endophyte-free grass species, nodding bluegrass (Poa reflexa). Using observations and a 3-year field experiment, we tested two questions: (i) Do P. leptocoma and P. reflexa occupy different ecological niches? and (ii) Does endophyte presence affect the relative fitness of P. leptocoma versus P. reflexa in the putative niches of these grass species? The two species were less likely to co-occur than expected by chance. Specifically, P. leptocoma grew closer to water sources and in wetter soils than P. reflexa, and also had higher root colonization by mycorrhizal fungi. Endophyte-symbiotic P. leptocoma seeds germinated with greater frequency in P. leptocoma niches relative to P. reflexa niches, whereas neither endophyte-free (experimentally removed) P. leptocoma seeds nor P. reflexa seeds showed differential germination between the two niche types. Thus, endophyte presence constrained the germination and early survival of host plants to microsites occupied by P. leptocoma. However, endophyte-symbiotic P. leptocoma ultimately showed greater growth than endophyte-free plants across all microsites, indicating a net benefit of the symbiosis at this life history stage. Differential effects of endophyte symbiosis on different host life history stages may thus contribute to niche partitioning between the two congeneric plant species. Our study therefore identifies a symbiotic relationship as a potential mechanism facilitating the coexistence of two species, suggesting that symbiont effects on host niche may have community-level consequences.

Reservoir and Source Potential of Eocene Microbialites, Green River Formation, USA - Nick Cestari (KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas), 2015)
In recent years, large petroleum discoveries within the lacustrine microbialite facies of pre-salt systems of offshore Brazil, Angola, and Gabon have increased interest in the potential of microbial carbonates as reservoir rocks. Whereas a multitude of studies have been conducted on microbialites and the associated lacustrine facies separately, there is still little known regarding whether there are definitive dissimilarities between the geochemical footprints of microbialites and associated lithofacies within a system. To explore this unknown, organic geochemistry was evaluated with the aim of comparing the microbialite facies (stromatolites and thrombolites) with the associated lacustrine carbonates (dolomitic marlstone, ooid grainstone, peloidal packstone and wackestone) to test if there are dissimilarities in regard to reservoir and source potential. Specifically, the goal is to understand the petroleum significance of lacustrine microbialites deposited in various lake conditions. Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and extractable organic material were analyzed for microbialite and associated lacustrine lithofacies in the Green River Formation of Colorado and Utah. The samples were from three cores: two from Piceance Basin (Nielsen 17-1 and Colorado Core 01A) and one from Uinta Basin (1 Coyote Wash). Additional hand samples collected from an outcrop at Douglas Pass, Colorado, represent shallow lake-margin deposits. The lake of the Piceance Creek Basin was a hydrologically closed, hypersaline lake characterized by deposition of organic rich microbialites, and dolomitic marlstones. In contrast, the Uinta Basin lake was a hydrologically open lake characterized by accumulation of organically lean microbialites, siltstone, mudstone, ooid grainstone, and peloidal packstone and wackestone. Gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) analysis yielded biomarker distributions distinct between the lacustrine microbialite facies and the associated lithofacies. The abundance of biomarkers associated with hydrocarbon potential is 10 to 100x greater in the microbialites than in the associated lacustrine carbonate lithofacies. Understanding the geochemical footprints of lacustrine microbialites and how they differ from associated carbonates as a function of depositional environment is crucial in identifying prospects in similar ancient reservoir systems.

2: Ute Rock Art of Western Colorado - Carol Patterson (2015)
Chants have no words. They are spiritually uplifting in a motion.-Clifford DuncanThe rock art of the Uncompahgre Plateau in western Colorado includes the Uncompahgre and Gunnison River drainage system on the eastern side, and the Dolores River drainage on the western side. According to Clifford, this territory was his father's ancestral land. The selection of petroglyphs sites included here was chosen for its clear images, distinct style, and age estimations. The rock art included outlines the broad array of petroglyphs found on the Uncompahgre Plateau, with examples from each era, depicting various categories of images.METHODOLOGY AND INTERPRETATIONThe age estimations of the petroglyphs of the Uncompahgre Plateau are based on engraving style, weathering, and direct dating if possible, with relative dates determined from soils and archaeological material associated with the panels. Chronology of styles is based on a large database of sites composed of images found throughout the plateau. Supporting data from current literature and ethnographic analogy is employed. This may allow for inferred interpretations of petroglyph panels that may represent social activities, such as game drives, battle scenes, or tribal ceremonies, such as the Bear Dance. Native consultants have suggested that images in a panel may also represent spiritual entities, such as rain or cloud deities, spirits of the deceased, or even iconographie symbols. The principles of symbol interpretation rely on consistency checks, frequency checks, and symbol affinities gathered from a comprehensive database (Patterson 2011). These multiple techniques follow the principles of cryptanalysis, which provides lines of evidence for the rock-art interpretation and analysis.REVIEW OF CULTURAL CONTEXTA literature search of the archeological context for this field of study in western Colorado has been documented, most notably by Reed and Gebauer (2004). The standard, Colorado Prehistory: A Context for the Northern Colorado River Basin (Reed and Metcalf 1999), is the most comprehensive for understanding the prehistory for this area. A historical context for the rock art appears in Appendix D of Class I Cultural Resource Overview of the Bureau of Land Management's Uncompahgre Field Office, Western Colorado (Patterson 2011). This document is reproduced herein as Table A.l in Appendix A.Petroglyphs (engraved) and pictographs (painted) on rock surfaces are difficult to date and to place within established archeological chronologies. It is also difficult to place them within cultural affinities; those created during the Archaic and Formative Eras are harder to determine than those created during the Protohistoric and Historic Eras (Figures 4 and 5). Based on extensive ethnographic information for this region, cultural diagnostics, such as the horse, cowboy hats, and fringed leggings, clearly identify historic Ute rock art. The Utes were the first Native Americans to adopt the horse culture. Large pedestrian, shieldbearing figures with spikey headdresses seen in petroglyphs may identify Paiutes rather than Utes, simply because Paiutes never adopted the horse culture. Figures 6A and 6B show a warrior carrying a pedestrian shield large enough to protect vital body parts but awkward to carry on horseback. In contrast, human stick figures shown in Figures 6C and 6D have the cultural diagnostics of Utes with equestrain trappings.It may be possible to determine Numic from Ancestral Pueblo cultural affiliations in images created during the Protohistoric Era by considering body style and symbol affiliations from the ethnographic and archeological record of the Ancestral Pueblo of the Southwest. Rock art of the San Juan Basketmakers and Pueblo II found in the San Juan Basin is typified by hairstyle, sometimes by body style, and by depictions of traditional deities or important food sources. In contrast, Numic hunter-gatherer traditions depict flat heads, sometimes with horns, and have a preference for depicting game animals, trails, bear paws, and tree iconography. …

Empowering collaborative forest restoration with locally relevant ecological research - Megan Matonis; Binkley, Daniel; Schultz, Courtney A.; Reid, Robin S.; Schultz, Courtney A. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Collaborative forest restoration can reduce conflicts over natural resource management and improve ecosystem function after decades of degradation. Scientific evidence helps collaborative groups avoid undesirable outcomes as they define goals, assess current conditions, design restoration treatments, and monitor change over time. Ecological research cannot settle value disputes inherent to collaborative dialogue, but discussions are enriched by locally relevant information on pressing natural resource issues. I worked closely with the Uncompahgre Partnership, a collaborative group of managers, stakeholders, and researchers in southwestern Colorado, to develop research questions, gather data, and interpret findings in the context of forest restoration. Specifically, my dissertation (1) explored ways to better align collaborative goals with ecological realities of dynamic and unpredictable ecosystems; (2) defined undesirable conditions for fire behavior based on modeling output, published literature, and collaborative discussions about values at risk; (3) assessed the degree to which restoration treatments are moving forests away from undesirable conditions (e.g., homogenous and dense forests with scarce open habitat for grasses, forbs, and shrubs); and (4) looked at the validity of rapid assessment approaches for estimating natural range of variability in frequent-fire forests. The current practice of defining desired future conditions pulls managers and stakeholders into command-and-control thinking and causes them to dream away resource tradeoffs and the unpredictability of forest change. Instead, moving ecosystems away from undesirable states and reducing unacceptable risk might allow for diverse and socially acceptable conditions across forested landscapes. The concept of undesirable conditions helped the Uncompahgre Partnership come to agreement over types of fire behavior and stand conditions they wanted to avoid through management. I determined that restoration treatments on the Uncompahgre Plateau are generally moving forests away from undesirably dense conditions that were uncommon prior to Euro-American settlement. My assessment was largely based on data collected during collaborative workdays with the Uncompahgre Partnership. Our rapid assessment approach for estimating historical forest structure took a quarter of the time required for scientifically rigorous stand reconstructions, and it provided reasonably accurate estimates of tree density and spatial patterns. Our data on historical stand structure revealed that fragmentation and loss of open grass-forb-shrub habitat between tree groups were the most dramatic and undesirable changes occurring in frequent-fire forests over the past century. Many restoration treatments are focused on restoring spatial patterns in tree groups, with little attention to spatial patterns in open grass-forb-shrub habitat. I determined that the juxtaposition of tree groups with grass-forb-shrub habitat >6 m from overstory trees is important for restoring understory cover, diversity, and composition. Focusing on undesirable conditions in stands, such as high tree density and scarcity of grass-forb-shrub habitat, can help collaborative groups find common ground and design treatments that restore structure, composition, and processes in forest ecosystems.

A CASE STUDY OF DATA IN THE MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE GUNNISON RIVER BASIN, COLORADO - Rhianna L. Williams (2015)
In the American Southwest, a growing population combined with climate change induced weather pattern changes are creating growing conflict for uses of the over appropriated Colorado River System. Water managers use a variety of tools and data to make decisions at the local and regional level which will impact access for future users. The purpose of this study is to understand how water managers use data and knowledge to manage current and future access to water resources in a water scarce region. A case study of the Gunnison River Basin located within the larger Colorado River Basin was conducted over 14 months. Information was collected in the form of regional documentation, participant observation, and interviews of nine regional water professionals. Gathered data was analyzed throughout the collection process using the theory building and testing methods of grounded theory. Rather than directly informing management, findings indicate that the use of data is mediated by the social institution of water law and its associated social norms, organizations, and bureaucracy.

Archiving primary data: solutions for long-term studies. - James A. Mills; Céline Teplitsky; Daniel T. Blumstein (Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 2015)
The recent trend for journals to require open access to primary data included in publications has been embraced by many biologists, but has caused apprehension amongst researchers engaged in long-term ecological and evolutionary studies. A worldwide survey of 73 principal investigators (Pls) with long-term studies revealed positive attitudes towards sharing data with the agreement or involvement of the PI, and 93% of PIs have historically shared data. Only 8% were in favor of uncontrolled, open access to primary data while 63% expressed serious concern. We present here their viewpoint on an issue that can have non-trivial scientific consequences. We discuss potential costs of public data archiving and provide possible solutions to meet the needs of journals and researchers.

Pattern and variation of the time budget of yellow-bellied marmots - Kenneth B. Armitage; C. M. Salsbury (Ethology, Ecology and Evolution, 2015)
We measured the time budgets of yellow-bellied marmots to determine what constraints limited energy acquisition and whether trade-offs occurred among the behaviors. Therefore, we focus on which behaviors form a consistent pattern among marmot populations, the degree of phenotypic plasticity in the time allocated to the behaviors, and the biotic and abiotic factors associated with variations in time allocations. Time budgets for 14 behaviors were recorded at six sites in the Upper East River Valley in western Colorado over two active seasons. Data were analyzed for cohort, day-period and season-period, and for interactions among the main effects. Sitting and vigilance, accounting for 63% of aboveground activity, are strongly associated with wariness, the need for marmots to monitor the presence of conspecific and predatory intruders. Foraging accounts for 15% of daily activity. These three activities are the major contributors to time budgets at all sites. Radiation, acting as a thermal constraint, greatly reduces activity during mid-day when radiation is intense. Sitting is the only major behavior to increase at mid-day, presumably to maintain wariness. Time allocations change little over the season-periods and foraging does not significantly increase in the weeks prior to hibernation. Young generally are less vigilant, often spend less time sitting and forage less than adults, but generally allocate more minutes to investigation. Time is a seasonal but not a daily constraint. Thermal constraints reduce overall daily activity, and digestive constraints limit foraging time. Sitting provides a reservoir of time that can be drawn upon when needed for other behaviors such that costly trade-offs are not evident. Time allocations for an activity may differ among sites; these differences and most significant differences, whether for cohort, day-period or season-period, are associated with the behaviors of a particular age/sex group, such as high time allocation to investigation by immigrant males.

Floral pigmentation patterns provide an example of Gloger’s rule in plants - M. H. Koski; T. L. Ashman (Nature Plants, 2015)
It is shown that Gloger's rule explains patterns of variation in UV-absorbing floral pigmentation in a widespread plant, Argentina anserina (Rosaceae), and UV as an agent of selection and bullseye size as a target increases with proximity to the Equator in both hemispheres.

Using geochemical indicators to distinguish high biogeochemical activity in the subsurface. - A. M. Kenwell (2015)

Interspecific competition between a non-native metal-hyperaccumulating plant (Noccaea caerulescens, Brassicaceae) and a native congener across a soil-metal gradient - J. P. Che-Castaldo; David W. Inouye (Australian Journal of Botany, 2015)
Adaptive traits are hypothesised to incur fitness trade-offs, and a classical example is metal-tolerant plants that exhibit reduced competitive ability when grown on low-metal substrates. In the present study, we examined whether metal-hyperaccumulating plants exhibit a similar trade-off, by assessing competition across a soil-metal gradient in the context of phytoremediation. We studied the cadmium- and zinc-hyperaccumulator Noccaea caerulescens (J. Presl & C. Presl) F.K. Mey., which has been introduced to potential remediation sites contaminated with those metals, and the nickel- and zinc-hyperaccumulator Noccaea fendleri subsp. glauca (A. Nelson) Al-Shehbaz & M. Koch, which is native to our study sites. We performed a greenhouse experiment with a response-surface design to quantify their competitive interactions on higher- and lower-metal substrates from each of three mine sites. Overall competitive effects between the species were weak, but we did find evidence of competition on the substrates that supported the highest rates of plant growth and reproduction. Abiotic factors were more limiting than competitive interactions for both species, and both performed better on substrates containing higher zinc, lower cadmium and lower copper concentrations. A complementary field trial supported these findings. Our results also showed that substrates outside of contaminated mine tailings can still contain sufficiently high zinc concentrations to support N. caerulescens, suggesting that the use of these plants for phytoremediation should be monitored to prevent the unintentional establishment of non-native species.

Response to Bergey and Spaulding - B. W. Taylor; M. L. Bothwell (BioScience, 2015)

Wise flies: a pre-dispersal seed predator prefers hermaphrodites over females in the gynodioecious Polemonium foliosissimum - G. Clarke; Alison K. Brody (Ecological Entomology, 2015)

An altitudinal cline in UV floral pattern corresponds with a behavioral change of a generalist pollinator assemblage - M. H. Koski; T. L. Ashman (Ecology, 2015)
Spatial variation in pollinator communities or behaviors can underlie floral diversification. Floral traits in the UV spectrum are common and mediate plant–pollinator interactions, but the role of pollinators in driving or maintaining their geographic variation has not been fully explored. We identify an altitudinal cline of increasing relative size of the UV bullseye pattern inArgentina anserina(Rosaceae) flowers, and assess whether pollination context contributes to clinal variation. At four sites that varied in altitude, we document the pollinator assemblage, and pollinator preference and visitation behavior. We then determine how pollinator visits affected pollen receipt and export. Finally, we describe how the functional relationship between UV floral phenotype and pollen receipt changed with altitude. Floral UV bullseye size increased with altitude, which corresponded with a change from a hymenopteran‐ to a dipteran‐dominated pollinator assemblage. While dipteran and hymenopteran preferences for bullseye size were similar, flowers with large bullseyes received more foraging visits than those with small bullseyes at higher altitude. The reverse was observed at the lower altitudes; pollinators approached large‐bullseye flowers often but rarely foraged. These differences are expected to affect fitness because foraging visits increased pollen export and receipt. Indeed, when natural variation in bullseye size was considered, it had a stronger effect on pollen receipt than other traits (flower size, display, or color). Plants with larger bullseyes tended to receive more pollen at the highest‐altitude site, while those with smaller ones received more pollen at the lowest‐altitude site. Results suggest that altitudinal changes in preference and behavior of the overall pollinator assemblage, but not differential preferences of pollinator taxonomic groups, could contribute to clinal variation in a UV floral trait for a generalist‐pollinated plant.

Identifying PCR primers to facilitate molecular phylogenetics in Caddisflies (Trichoptera) - B. S. McCullagh; S. A. Wissinger; J. M. Marcus (Zoological Systematics, 2015)

Captive‐rearing of Gunnison sage‐grouse from egg collection to adulthood to foster proactive conservation and recovery of a conservation‐reliant species - Anthony D. Apa; Lief A. Wiechman (Zoo Biology, 2015)
Gunnison sage‐grouse (Centrocercus minimus) are distributed across southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah, United States. Their distribution has decreased over the past century and the species has been listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Reduced genetic diversity, small population size, and isolation may affect Gunnison sage‐grouse population persistence. Population augmentation can be used to counteract or mitigate these issues, but traditional translocation efforts have yielded mixed, and mostly unsuccessful, results. Captive‐rearing is a viable, although much debated, conservation approach to bolster wild conservation‐reliant species. Although there have been captive‐rearing efforts with greater sage‐grouse (C. urophasianus), to date, no information exists about captive‐rearing methods for Gunnison sage‐grouse. Therefore, we investigated techniques for egg collection, artificial incubation, hatch, and captive‐rearing of chicks, juveniles, subadults, and adults for Gunnison sage‐grouse. In 2009 we established a captive flock that produced viable eggs. From 2009–2011, we collected and artificially incubated 206 Gunnison sage‐grouse eggs from 23 wild and 14 captive females. Our hatchability was 90%. Wild‐produced eggs were heavier than captive‐produced eggs and lost mass similarly during incubation. We produced 148 chicks in captivity and fed them a variety of food sources (e.g. invertebrates to commercial chow). Bacterial infections were the primary cause of chick mortality, but we successfully reduced the overall mortality rate during the course of our study. Conservationists and managers should consider the utility in developing a captive‐rearing program or creating a captive population as part of a proactive conservation effort for the conservation‐reliant Gunnison sage‐grouse. Zoo Biol. 34:438–452, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Multimodal Integration in Uncertain Environments: A Quantitative Model and Field Experiments with Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmota flaviventris). - N. E. Munoz (2015)

Effects of Gunnison Sage-Grouse habitat treatment efforts on associated avifauna and vegetation structure - Paul M. Lukacs; Amy Seglund; Steve Boyle (Avian Conservation and Ecology, 2015)
Lukacs, P. M., A. Seglund, and S. Boyle. 2015. Effects of Gunnison Sage-Grouse habitat treatment efforts on associated avifauna and vegetation structure. Avian Conservation and Ecology 10(2):7.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00799-100207

Consuming ideals: an archaeological investigation of the Social Hygiene Movement in Colorado - Kristy Kay Griffin; Van Buren, Mary; Kwiatkowski, Lynn; Payne, Sarah (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Historical investigations of the Social Hygiene Movement (1890s-1930s) tend to focus on the urban origins of the concerns that sparked much of the resulting reform efforts. Furthermore, archaeological investigations that address artifacts associated with the Social Hygiene Movement often focus on either an urban or a rural setting, and usually only examine a single aspect of the movement rather than considering the impact of the totality of the movement’s ideology on American consumer behaviors. As a result, little is known about the materialization of the Social Hygiene Movement in the archaeological record and the differential appearance of associated artifacts at urban relative to rural sites. This project seeks to define Social Hygiene Movement-associated artifact types and undertake a comparative analysis of the occurrence of these artifacts at two urban and four rural sites in the state of Colorado in an effort to better understand the early material expressions of the movement in rural regions of the United States. This study was designed to 1) explore the assumption that artifacts related to health, hygiene, and cleanliness should appear at rural sites later than at urban sites, 2) determine if the Social Hygiene Movement manifested differently in rural regions relative to urban areas as evidenced in the archaeological record by types of consumer products purchased, and 3) if differences do exist, provide information about what other contextual and ideological factors may have caused the divergence. This project concludes that rural residents were likely aware of the emerging health, hygiene, and cleanliness ideals from nearly the beginning of the Social Hygiene Movement. However, differences in the frequency and types of products purchased suggest that consumer choices were informed by a shared system of rural values developed in opposition to the hegemonic rhetoric of Progressive Era reformers. The evidence presented in this study indicates that rural residents did not alter their hygienic practices and consumer behaviors to be in-line with urban standards, but rather selected the ideological aspects of the SHM that reinforced their rural identities and incorporated the products and practices which complemented their daily realities and social norms. The results highlight the importance of utilizing material studies in conjunction with historical research to achieve more nuanced understandings of the origins of the Social Hygiene Movement and question commonly-held assumptions based on the dominant discourse often evidenced in documentary sources.

Improving our chemistry: Challenges and opportunities in the interdisciplinary study of floral volatiles - Robert A. Raguso; J. D. Thompson; Diane R. Campbell (Natural Products Reports, 2015)
Here we review next-generation questions in the study of plant–pollinator interactions mediated by floral volatiles, and the potential for renewed collaboration between biologists and chemists in answering such questions.

Barriers to Gene Flow across a Light Gradient in Cardamine cordifolia. - S. Faries (2015)
Ecotypic variation can be driven by a disproportionate balance between selective pressures and gene flow. If the strength of selection is weak relative to the level of gene flow, genetic variation will likely be homogenized among populations. However, in the absence or severe limitation of gene flow, divergent selection pressures are more likely to result in adaptive evolution to local environmental conditions. Both biotic and abiotic factors can limit gene flow, and these barriers can highly influence the exhibited traits in plants along a habitat gradient. At the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, a native mustard Cardamine cordifolia has exhibited habitat specific differentiation across a light quality gradient. Flowering phenology was examined in Cardamine cordifolia in open sun, intermediate shade and deep shade habitats to determine if a separation of first, peak and last flowering time within the different environments was a mechanism for pre-zygotic isolation. I hypothesized that C. cordifolia found in open sun habitats will have an earlier flowering phenology in comparison to C. cordifolia found in deep shade habitats. Using two sites, a highly significant difference in first, peak and last flowering time was observed in the open sun and deep shade habitats. This gap in flowering phenology demonstrates a limited ability for open sun and deep shade plants to outcross in the short alpine growing season. Without gene flow the extremes of the light gradient are able to adapt locally in response to unique, divergent selective pressures.

Uncompahgre fault geometry: A seismic, field, and gravity study near Nucla, Colorado, Paradox Basin, USA - Carter B. Timbel (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Seismic, well, field and gravity data are used to further understand the Uncompahgre fault near Nucla, Colorado, Paradox Basin, USA. The data help explain the complex sedimen- tary and structural history associated with faulting and salt flowage along the eastern margin of the Paradox Basin. Near Nucla, Colorado, 2D seismic lines document several episodes of thrust tectonics, sedimentation, and salt flowage associated with the late Paleozoic-age Uncompahgre Thrust. Prominent unconformities and disconformities within the Permian Cutler Group are vis- ible in the study area. Faults and unconformities seen on seismic data give an indication for the timing of salt flow caused by episodic sedimentation triggered by Uncompahgre fault movement. In addition, along-strike variability of Uncompahgre fault is evident in the seismic data. Along- strike Uncompahgre fault structural variation has been a subject of scientific debate, and the data collection near Nucla, Colorado reveal two end member structural styles of the Uncompahgre fault. A gravity (Bouger Anomaly) study in the area shows an anomalous low-gravity zone to the northeast (hinterland) side of the Uncompahgre fault. These gravity data suggest the presence of an allochtonous block in the hanging wall of the Uncompahgre fault, overriding evaporitic (Her- mosa Group) sediments. Integrated, these data offer a more complete analysis of Uncompahgre fault character in southwest Colorado than previously documented.

Survival of Gunnison sage‐grouse Centrocercus minimus in Colorado, USA - Amy J. Davis; Michael L. Phillips; Paul F. Doherty (Journal of Avian Biology, 2015)
Gunnison sage‐grouse Centrocercus minimus has declined from their historic range and recent monitoring has provided evidence that some populations are continuing to decline. The evaluation of long‐term, population‐specific survival rates is important to assess population stability, and is necessary for conservation of this species of concern. We evaluated adult and yearling survival in two dynamically different populations of Gunnison sage‐grouse (a relatively large, more stable population and a small, declining population). Our goal was to examine the relationship between annual survival and population, and test hypotheses with regards to temporal effects (across years and within year) and individual effects (sex and age). We also evaluated the effects of snow depth on sage‐grouse survival. We tracked 214 radiomarked birds in the large population from 2005–2010 and 25 birds in the small population from 2007–2010. We found no evidence for a difference in survival between yearlings and adults nor did we find an influence of snow depth on survival. Males had the lowest survival during the lekking season (March–April); females had lower survival during the nesting and chick rearing season (May–July) and late‐summer and fall (August–October). The annual survival rate was 0.61 (SE 0.06) for females and 0.39 (SE 0.08) for males. Survival was constant across years and between the populations suggesting observed population changes during this time period are not a result of changes in adult survival.

Nest Success of Gunnison Sage-Grouse in Colorado, USA - Amy J. Davis; Michael L. Phillips; Paul F. Doherty (PLOS ONE, 2015)
Gunnison Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus minimus) is a species of concern for which little demographic information exists. To help fill this information gap, we investigated factors affecting nest success in two populations of Gunnison Sage-Grouse. We assessed the relative effects of (1) vegetation characteristics (e.g., shrub height, shrub cover, grass cover, and grass height), (2) temporal factors (e.g., year, timing of incubation initiation, and nest age), (3) precipitation, and (4) age of the nesting female (yearling or adult) on nest success rates. We found 177 nests in the Gunnison Basin population (that contains 85-90% of the species) from 2005-2010 and 20 nests in the San Miguel population (that contains < 10% of the species) from 2007-2010. Temporal factors had the greatest impact on nest success compared to vegetation characteristics, precipitation, and female age. Nest success varied considerably among years ranging from 4.0%-60.2% in Gunnison Basin and from 12.9%- 51.9% in San Miguel. Nests that were initiated earlier in the breeding season had higher nest success (at least one egg hatches). Daily nest survival rates decreased during the course of incubation. None of the vegetation characteristics we examined were strongly related to nest success.

An ephemeral meandering river system: Sediment dispersal processes in the Río Colorado, Southern Altiplano Plateau, Bolivia - Jiaguang Li; Stefan M. Luthi; Marinus E. Donselaar; Gert Jan Weltje; Maarten A. Prins; Menno R. Bloemsma (Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 2015)
© 2014 Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany. The Río Colorado meandering river system feeds the Salar de Uyuni, the World's largest salt pan in the southern Altiplano plateau (Bolivia). It is characterized by ephemerality due to the high aridity of the region, and a downstream decrease of river bankfull width and depth in the river terminus. Dryland meandering river systems in high-Altitude regions have rarely been reported. We investigated the active processes in this system from the alluvial fan to the lower coastal plain. On-site surveys combined with high-precision GPS and high-resolution satellite imagery show that Río Colorado area is typified by generally fine sediment and a low gradient in the coastal plain. In the alluvial fan, where channel meandering is weak but still recognizable, the deposits are characterized by fining-upward sequences with gravelprone sediments at the bottom, paleosols in the middle and clay-dominated sediments at the top. In the coastal plain the channel deposits consist of coarse to fine sand with sparse basal gravel, while the river banks and thus much of the floodplain consist of clay and silt in the upper coastal plain and very fine sand, silt and clay with salt deposits in the lower coastal plain. Grain-size distribution analysis show a linear decrease in bed load sediments downstream and a concurrent increase in suspended load sediments. These longitudinal variations in the proportions of sediment load are found to be consistent with changes in the topographic slope. The river gradient shows six intervals with downstream decreasing but internally quite constant slopes and sediment composition. Characteristic geomorphologic features are found to be head-cutting channels, chute channels, avulsions and crevasse splays. They illustrate the processes of erosion and deposition in this low-gradient river system and help understand sediment dispersal and their preservation potentials.

Solutions to Burnout and Retention as Perceived by County Extension Agents of the Colorado State University Extension System - Matt Benge; Amy Harder; Jeff Goodwin (Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 2015)
This study explored solutions to the issue of burnout and retention of Extension agents. Extension agents experience burnout for reasons such as long hours, stress, and organizational factors. As Extension administration addresses job satisfaction and performance of Extension employees, burnout and retention issues identified in this study can facilitate efforts to enhance the effectiveness of a statewide Extension program. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory was the theoretical framework for this study. Researchers used the constant-comparative method of analysis to identify recurring themes from the open-ended items of an online-administered survey. Twelve primary themes emerged, including (a) compensation, (b) hiring practices, (c) promotion and advancement within Extension, (d) organizational support regarding agent development, (e) organizational support regarding administration, (f) organizational support regarding colleagues, (g) reporting, (h) recognition, (i) resources, (j) personnel and staffing, (k) evaluation of administration and specialists, and (l) workload. Results suggest that Extension administration should focus on the maintenance factors of compensation, workload, and internal promotion and advancement, as well as motivating factors, to improve retention of Extension agents.

Fungal Phytopathogens Decrease Plant-Insect Interactions. - A. Niedweicki (2015)
Rusts are pathogens of rapidly growing plant tissue and are of particular concern in agricultural settings due to their reduction of plant fitness. These phytopathogens depend heavily on abiotic features such as humidity, temperature, and UV strength, and with a changing climate, the rust ranges may be altered in future years and new hosts can be infected. Since this organism is a obligate pathogen changes in host ranges could introduce rusts into new communities and lead to novel interactions. Not much research has been conducted to understand the natural communities of which rusts are a part. Previous research has indicated mixed effects of fungal presence on arthropods associated with plants. Decreases in herbivory have been noted as well as increase in pollinator attraction. This study aims to elucidate natural patterns of insect herbivory and pollination, and the effects on plant fitness utilizing infected Helianthella quinquenervis. Results indicate significant decreases in herbivory on infected plants, as well as reduced number of flowers produced by infected plants. Pollination rates also decreased with infection as pollinators spent less time and visited fewer flowers on infected plants.

Bears benefit plants via a cascade with both antagonistic and mutualistic interactions - J. B. Grinath; B. D. Inouye; N. Underwood (Ecology Letters, 2015)

Growth, developmental and stress responses of larvae of the clouded sulphur butterfly Colias eriphyle to repeated exposure to high, sub-lethal temperatures - J. K. Higgins; H. J. MacLean; L. B. Buckley; J. G. Kingsolver (Physiological Entomology, 2015)

Population dynamics and competitive outcome derive from resource allocation statistics: the governing influence of the distinguishability of individuals - Y. Zhang; J. Harte (Theoretical Population Biology, 2015)
The theory clarifies the condition for the energetic equivalence rule (EER) to hold, and provides a statistical explanation for the importance of species functional variation in determining population dynamics and coexistence patterns.

Bee- to bird-pollination shifts in Penstemon: effects of floral-lip removal and corolla constriction on bumble bee preference - J. L. Zung; J. R. K. Forrest; J. D. Thomson; M. C. Castellanos (Evolutionary Ecology, 2015)

Utilization of naturalized mustard Thlaspi arvense by insect enemies. - C. Cerilla (2015)

How does dust affect pollination in Ipomopsis aggregata? - M. Diaz (2015)

The effect of repeated, lethal sampling on wild bee abundance and diversity - Z. J. Gezon; Eli S. Wyman; John S. Ascher; David W. Inouye; R. E. Irwin (Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 2015)
Summary Bee pollinators provide a critical ecosystem service to wild and agricultural plants but are reported to be declining world‐wide due to anthropogenic change. Long‐term data on bee abundance and diversity are scarce, and the need for additional quantitative sampling using repeatable methods has been emphasized. Recently, monitoring programmes have begun using a standardized method that employs a combination of pan traps and sweep netting, resulting in lethal sampling of bees. This standardized method can remove a large number of bees from sites during each sampling day, raising concern that the sampling itself could have a negative effect on bee populations. We conducted an experiment to assess whether lethal sampling for bees using pan traps and netting affected bee abundance and diversity when done every two weeks throughout a season and over multiple years. We compared bee abundance, richness, evenness and functional group composition between sites that had been sampled every two weeks from 2009 to 2012 to similar sites not previously sampled. We found that the standardized method for sampling bees, with specimens from 132 morphospecies, did not affect bee communities in terms of abundance, rarefied richness, evenness, or functional group composition. Thus, our results indicate that the bee communities we sampled are robust to such sampling efforts, despite removing an average of 2862 bees per season. We discuss several explanations for why sampling did not affect bee abundance or community structure, including a density‐dependent response to reduced competition for resources. These results suggest that bee monitoring programmes sampling once every two weeks with pan traps and netting will not affect bee community structure. We urge researchers monitoring bees to utilize standardized protocols so that results can be compared across space and time.

Effects of Weather on Mountain White-Crowned Sparrow Reproductive Success - E. Putnam (2015)

Roles of Stridulation in Nicophorus investigator. - V. Ortiz (2015)
Stridulation is a key behavior to determining survival in Nicrophorus investigator. In this paper, the roles it plays in competition over a carcass, burying process, and larval development have been studied. Their ability to stridulate was manipulated through clipping part of their plectra and they were given simulations that required some form of communication. Stridulation is vital to effectively communicate certain dominate behaviors. The experiments suggests that it is necessary to decrease the time it takes to winning a carcass in order to complete the beginning stages of the Nicrophorine life cycle.

Assessing community phenotype of Populus tremuloides: the effect of ploidy level on associated arthropod communities. - Matthew J. Hecking (2015)

Exploring the behavioral rules influencing sociality in a facultatively social species, yellow-bellied marmots - J. Yang (2015)

Analysis of temporal change in high-elevation plant community composition, East River Basin, Colorado, USA. - Stephanie Zorio (2015)

Petroglyphs of Western Colorado and the Northern Ute Indian Reservation as Interpreted by Clifford Duncan - Carol Patterson (2015)
Clifford Duncan, a Northern Ute elder, believed in educating the public to know and understand the meaning of Ute petroglyphs. By doing this, he believed it would help to preserve and protect them. Over the course of eight years, Clifford and the author visited and revisited all of these sites, discussing what they might represent. Clifford’s father was an Uncompahgre Ute and wanted Clifford to know the traditional homelands of the Uncompahgres in western Colorado. Clifford made special trips all through the Uncompahgre Plateau, seeking out any Ute petroglyphs and cultural sites. Later, he and the author visited many of the petroglyphs on the Uintah-Ouray Reservation, which were authored by the Uncompahgre and White River Utes. The interpretations of the petroglyphs are supplemented with cultural and political history, and ethnographic information from scholars provides a deep appreciation as to what makes Ute petroglyphs so unique and fascinating. Full-color illus.

Microgeographic patterns of genetic divergence and adaptation across environmental gradients in Boechera stricta(Brassicaceae) - J. T. Anderson; Nadeesha Perera; Bashira Chowdhury; T. Mitchell-Olds (The American Naturalist, 2015)

Plasticity in functional traits in the context of climate change: A case study of the subalpine forb Boechera stricta (Brassicaceae) - J. T. Anderson; Z. J. Gezon (Global Change Biology, 2015)
Environmental variation often induces shifts in functional traits, yet we know little about whether plasticity will reduce extinction risks under climate change. As climate change proceeds, phenotypic plasticity could enable species with limited dispersal capacity to persist in situ, and migrating populations of other species to establish in new sites at higher elevations or latitudes. Alternatively, climate change could induce maladaptive plasticity, reducing fitness, and potentially stalling adaptation and migration. Here, we quantified plasticity in life history, foliar morphology, and ecophysiology in Boechera stricta (Brassicaceae), a perennial forb native to the Rocky Mountains. In this region, warming winters are reducing snowpack and warming springs are advancing the timing of snow melt. We hypothe- sized that traits that were historically advantageous in hot and dry, low-elevation locations will be favored at higher elevation sites due to climate change. To test this hypothesis, we quantified trait variation in natural populations across an elevational gradient. We then estimated plasticity and genetic variation in common gardens at two eleva- tions. Finally, we tested whether climatic manipulations induce plasticity, with the prediction that plants exposed to early snow removal would resemble individuals from lower elevation populations. In natural populations, foliar morphology and ecophysiology varied with elevation in the predicted directions. In the common gardens, trait plas- ticity was generally concordant with phenotypic clines from the natural populations. Experimental snow removal advanced flowering phenology by 7 days, which is similar in magnitude to flowering time shifts over 2–3 decades of climate change. Therefore, snow manipulations in this system can be used to predict eco-evolutionary responses to global change. Snow removal also altered foliar morphology, but in unexpected ways. Extensive plasticity could buf- fer against immediate fitness declines due to changing climates.

Does snowmelt timing affect bumble bee colony abundance? - R. Billingsley (2015)
Average temperatures are increasing globally and causing shifts in the timing of weather events such as spring snowmelt, which may have profound consequences on the phenology of many organisms. Working at the Rocky Mountain Biological Lab in central Colorado, we examined the relationship between spring snowmelt timing and patterns of bumble bee abundance throughout the foraging season. To do this, we conducted net sampling at each site every two weeks throughout the summer for 7 consecutive years (2009-2015) and recorded each bumble bee caught on a flower. We looked at the effects of year, date, snowmelt timing, annual precipitation, and temperature on bumble bee abundance using generalized linear mixed models in R. We found that the abundance of Bombus bifarius was significantly affected by the date of sampling, the date of first snowmelt, and temperature, while the abundance of Bombus appositus and Bombus flavifrons were significantly affected by date and precipitation. We conclude that earlier snowmelt dates may positively affect bumble bee populations by extending foraging seasons and thus allowing greater colony buildup.

Effects of proximity to riparian zones on avian species richness and abundance in montane aspen woodlands. - J. R. Glass; C. H. Floyd (Journal of Field Ornithology, 2015)
Riparian zones often provide more food or nesting resources than surrounding ecosystems and thus support more species or a greater abundance of birds. However, the extent to which the positive effects of riparian zones extend into adjoining habitats has rarely been investigated. We examined bird species richness and abundance in aspen (Populus tremuloides) woodlands of the upper East River Valley in Colorado, a region with extensive stands of aspen located upslope from riparian zones dominated by willows (Salix spp.). Our objective was to determine how species richness and abundance in aspen stands located closer to riparian zones compared to that of aspen stands farther away. To control for elevation effects, we conducted point counts for birds and examined the effects of riparian proximity on avian species richness and abundance in three elevation belts (low, 2840–2875 m; middle, 2940–2960 m; and high, 3040–3060 m). We determined riparian proximity by measuring distances from each census site to the nearest body of water and to the nearest patch of willow. Proximity to major willow patches (≥6500 m2) had a stronger influence on species richness and abundance than did proximity to water or smaller patches of willows. Total species richness and abundance significantly increased with proximity to major willow patches at low elevation sites only. This relationship was driven by a greater prevalence of riparian-nesting species at lower elevation sites, where aspens were generally closer to riparian zones. The positive effects of willows diminished with abrupt changes in elevation. Our results highlight the importance of protecting willows around riparian zones in valley bottoms where habitat destruction caused by human land use is most prominent. Efectos de la proximidad a la zona riparia sobre la riqueza y abundancia de especies de aves en bosques montanos de álamo En muchos casos las zonas riparias proveen una mayor cantidad de alimentos o recursos para la anidación que los ecosistemas circundantes. Por lo tanto tienen un mayor numero de especies o una mayor abundancia de aves. Sin embargo, la medida en que los efectos positivos de las zonas riparias se extiende hacia hábitats adjuntos ha sido raramente explorada. Examinamos la riqueza de aves y la abundancia en bosques de álamo (Populus tremuloides) en la parte alta del “East River Valley” en Colorado, una región con poblaciones extensas de álamo ubicadas en cerca de zonas riparias dominadas por sauces (Salix spp.). Nuestro objetivo era determinar el cambio en la riqueza y abundancia de especies de aves en los bosques de álamo de acuerdo con la distancia a la zona riparia. Para contralar por los efectos de la elevación, realizamos puntos de conteo para aves y examinamos los efectos de la proximidad a zonas riparias sobre la riqueza y abundancia de aves en tres franjas altitudinales (baja, 2840–2875 m, medio 2940–2960 m y alto, 3040–3060 m). Tomamos la distancia desde cada punto de censo hasta el cuerpo de agua mas cercano como la proximidad a la zona riparia. La proximidad a los parches de sauces grandes (≥6500 m2), tuvo una mayor influencia en la riqueza y abundancia de especies que la proximidad a los cuerpos de agua o a los parches de sauces mas pequeños. La riqueza y abundancia total, incrementó significativamente con la proximidad a los parches de sauce grandes, solamente en sitios de baja elevación. Esta relación estuvo determinada por una mayor prevalencia de especies que anidan en zonas riparias en los sitios de baja elevación, donde los álamos están generalmente mas cerca de las zonas riaprias. El efecto positivo de los sauces disminuyo con los cambios abruptos en elevación. Nuestros resultados resaltan la importancia de proteger los sauces alrededor de regiones riparias en la base de los valles, donde la destrucción del hábitat causada a causa de efectos antrópicos es mas prominente. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.

Environmentally induced phenotypic variation in wild yellow-bellied marmots - Adriana A. Maldonado-Chaparro; J. G. A. Martin; Kenneth B. Armitage; M. K. Oli; Daniel T. Blumstein (Journal of Mammalogy, 2015)
Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an individual to modify its phenotype according to the conditions it experiences, is a source of between-individual variation and a mechanism by which individuals can cope with environmental change. Plasticity is expected to evolve in response to environmental heterogeneity, such as seasonality and year-toyear variation. We aimed to characterize patterns of phenotypic change in morphological (body mass), life-history (reproductive success and litter size), and social (embeddedness) traits of female yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) in response to climatic and social variation. We used data collected over 36 years on a population of yellow-bellied marmots studied in Colorado. We used mixed effect models to explore phenotypically plastic responses and tested for individual variation in mean trait values (i.e., intercept) and in plasticity (i.e., slope). All examined traits were plastic, and the population's average plastic response often differed between spatially distinct colonies that varied systematically in timing of snowmelt, among age classes, and between females with different previous reproductive experiences. Moreover, we showed individual differences in June mass and pup mass plasticity. We suggest that plasticity plays a key role buffering the effects of continuous changes in environmental conditions.

Rare-Earth Element mineralization and formation of the Iron Hill carbonatite complex, Gunnison County, Colorado, USA - J.G. Erickson (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)

Social and ecological aspects of conservation development as a strategy for biodiversity conservation on private lands - Cooper M. Farr; Pejchar, Liba; Reed, Sarah E.; Bailey, Larissa L.; Seidl, Andrew F. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Private lands harbor a large proportion of the world’s biodiversity, and they are also facing widespread threats from extractive land uses, anthropogenic disturbances, and land conversion for residential and commercial development. With decreased funding and support for public land acquisition and management, developing effective and economically viable tools for conservation on private lands is increasingly important. One method is conservation development (CD), an alternative to residential sprawl designed to decrease negative environmental impacts by clustering houses in a small portion of a property while preserving the remaining land as protected open space. Although CD makes up approximately one-fourth of all of the private lands conserved in the U.S., little research has assessed where and why this tool is implemented, long-term management of CD open space, or specific positive or negative effects on wildlife communities. I conducted a thorough investigation of CD as a private land conservation strategy using a variety of methods. In chapter one, I investigated CD’s ability to successfully protect animal populations by examining bird and mammal occurrence in 14 CD subdivisions (range: 14-432 ha) in Northern Colorado, USA. Using point count and camera trap data in an occupancy modeling framework, I evaluated the relative importance of 9 subdivision design factors (e.g. housing density, proportion of CD preserved, total area of the protected space) and 14 stewardship factors (e.g. mowing, livestock, native vegetation cover) in influencing the richness of human-sensitive and human-adapted species and probability of use by 16 birds and 6 mammals. I found that bird and mammal species richness and habitat use were associated predominantly with design characteristics that maximize the natural or undisturbed land area both within and surrounding the development (e.g., proportion of CD preserved, total area of the protected space, proportion of natural land cover types at large scales). Habitat use by birds was frequently influenced by local habitat composition and quality, and several bird and mammal species had decreased habitat use in areas with increased localized disturbances such as the presence of humans and mowing in the open space. In chapter two, I used Social Network Analysis (SNA) to examine participation of individuals and companies (actors) in CD implementation. Using data gathered from public county records, I quantified actor participation in CD subdivisions in six counties in Colorado, USA. I examined and compared the patterns of actor participation in CDs among counties and identified the individuals and organizations that were most consistently associated with the implementation of CDs within each county. I found that social networks of actor participation in CD differed among counties, and network characteristics varied depending on the population of the county, the total number of CDs in the county, and the total number of actors in the network. My results also showed that the most highly connected actors that were consistently involved in the implementation of many CDs were biological and geological consultants, surveyors, engineers, and planners. In chapter three, I formally assessed the content of management plans and conservation easements for existing CD subdivisions in six Colorado counties. I quantified the proportion of CDs with management documents. I also examined the land uses and stewardship activities that were prohibited, permitted, encouraged or required in the protected open space of existing CDs. I determined which activities and practices were most and least frequently addressed in these documents in order to prioritize strategies to improve CD as an effective private land conservation tool. More than two-thirds (69%) of 302 CDs had documents on file that included guidelines and regulations for the long-term stewardship of the protected land. However, CD management documents rarely mentioned issues relating to wildlife habitat improvement, species-specific monitoring and management, homeowner education, and access to the open space by domestic pets. This research identifies several key design and stewardship factors that influence the conservation value of CD open space for birds and mammals, and the key actors and actor types in CD implementation. These findings can inform the strategies used to communicate recommendations to improve CD effectiveness at achieving conservation objectives. This research also examines the current strengths and weaknesses in the documents that guide stewardship of CD subdivisions. Using these findings, I made recommendations for critical guidelines and regulation that should be included in management documents to attain conservation benefits. By incorporating characteristics that promote the persistence of sensitive animal species on private lands, CDs have strong potential to balance the housing needs of growing human populations with the preservation of diverse and abundant animal communities. With direct application to improving the way that CDs are designed, developed and managed, my findings could enhance the potential of CD to sustain native biodiversity on private lands.

Assessment of resource changes in backcountry campsites from 1989-1996 in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado - Victoria Grace Steele (Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University), 2015)
One of the major contributing factors affecting wilderness resources is camping.The objectives of this study were to describe the resource changes that occur in backcountry campsites in Rocky Mountain National Park as measured by campsite area and campsite score from the Backcountry Campsite Impact Assessment and Monitoring System (BCIAMS).Six categories, with several sub-categories each, were tested for change in area and total BCIAMS score.Categories were relative aspect, campfire, campsite type, distance from the trailhead, elevation and use.Each sub-category was analyzed independently and for each test, missing area measurements, or total scores of zero were dropped from that analysis.This produced different numbers of campsites in each test.Most sites increased in area over time, but most sites decreased in total score over time.Sites that increased significantly in area over time were: northeast, southeast, northwest, no fire, campfire, individual, any distance from the trailhead, low or moderate in elevation and heavily used.Sites that increased significantly in total score over time were southwest and no fires.Stock sites decreased significantly over time in total score.Use was positively correlated to an increase in campsite area and total score.Group and group/stock sites had larger areas than all other site types.Stock sites had larger areas than individual sites.Group/stock sites had higher total scores than all other site types.Campsites far from the trailhead had larger areas than sites close to the trailhead.Moderate elevation sites had higher total scores than low elevation sites.A model of the life cycle of a campsite was adapted from Cole (1994).The decrease in BCIAMS scores, along with yearly campsite improvements has shown that impacts to campsites be reversed and allow the campsite to reach a long term steady state.This study demonstrated the validity of assessing, monitoring and managing campsites over time.Managing campsites increases their aesthetic quality, concentrates use, and can reverse the rate of degradation.With continued management of campsites, our natural areas can be preserved for future generations.

Effects of Light Environment on Recovery from Harvest and Antibacterial Properties of OshÃ¡ Ligusticum porteri (Apiaceae) - E. H. Mooney; Martin A. A.; R. P. Blessin (Economic Botany, 2015)
The ability to inhibit Bacillus cereus decreased in extracts from plants harvested from high light environments, which follows plant defense theory, and harvest sustainability in L. porteri is equivocal among the light environments examined in this study, although some medicinal properties vary.

Environmental drivers of plant community composition in subalpine and alpine fens of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA - Betsy L. H. Bultema; Cooper, David J.; Steingraeber, David A.; Steingraeber, David A. (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Fens are a widely distributed type of wetland worldwide and offer vital habitat for plant and animal species in the Rocky Mountains. Fens support a high biodiversity of flora and fauna given the proportionally small space they occupy on the landscape, often serving as refugia for disjunct plant species at the extremes of their ranges. While some literature exists on subalpine fens in the southern Rocky Mountains of the United States, alpine fens in this region remain understudied. Alpine fens are relatively rare in the southern Rocky Mountains and are concentrated within the San Juan Mountains where topography and climate favor peat development in the alpine. While studies of montane and boreal peatlands have identified water chemistry as a main driver of plant community composition, it is unclear whether the same drivers of plant community composition are important in alpine fens in the San Juan Mountains. The goal of this study was to 1.) Describe and classify the vegetation of subalpine and alpine fens and, 2.) Determine underlying environmental variables influencing plant community composition. To do this, I mapped fens within the BLM Gunnison Management Unit (approximately 243,000 hectares). I then visited, verified, and sampled vegetation and environmental data from 33 subalpine and 32 alpine fens. To classify vegetation data into plant communities, I used hierarchical cluster analysis. I used non-metric multidimensional scaling and comparisons of ranked environmental and vegetation distance matrices to investigate relationships between plant community composition and environmental variables. I compared the influence of environmental variables on subalpine and alpine plant community composition with cumulative r² values from linear regressions with NMS axes and Spearman rank correlations between ranked vegetation and environmental distance matrices. I classified 226 stands of vegetation into 11 plant communities that were correlated with elevation and water chemistry variables. Water chemistry variables, particularly pH, EC, and bicarbonate, were more important in structuring vegetation in subalpine than alpine fens. This was in part due to a lower range in values of alpine water chemistry variables. However, lower variance in water chemistry variables did not correspond to decreased plant community diversity in the alpine. To thoroughly explain alpine fen plant community diversity, future studies should consider measuring additional variables, such as soil temperature and temporal variation in water table. Elevation was a relatively important explanatory variable for plant community composition in alpine fens, suggesting that climatic variables are important influences on community composition. Results of this research indicate that the relative importance of environmental variables differs for alpine and subalpine fen plant communities. Thus, future studies examining mountain fen plant community composition should treat alpine and subalpine fen data separately.

The effects of primary and secondary nectar robbing of Ipomopsis aggregata on hummingbird visitation. - C. J. Nelson (2015)
Nectar robbers feed on the nectar obtained through holes that have been chewed into the flower. This behavior often leads to a reduction in effective pollination because nectar robbers avoid floral reproductive structures (Inouye 1980). Primary nectar robbers puncture the flower, creating an opening in the petal from which to remove nectar, while secondary nectar robbers use the holes created by primary robbers. Studies have shown that nectar robbing can negatively affect plant reproduction by deterring legitimate pollinators (Irwin et al. 2010). Furthermore, data have shown that secondary nectar robbing can result in increased reproduction costs beyond that caused by primary robbing alone (Richman et al. in prep). One reason this might be is that legitimate pollinators are further deterred as plants incur more nectar robbing. I have tested this hypothesis by collecting 30 Ipomopsis aggregata plants and subjecting them to varying levels of nectar robbing: none, primary robbing only, and secondary robbing. After applying treatments I arranged them in a field and observed hummingbird visitations, recording the sex and species of the bird as well as the specific plants visited and the number of flowers probed per plant. The data show that hummingbirds probed more flowers per plant of the control group than they did of either of the nectar robbed groups and they probed more flowers per plant of the primary group than they did of the secondary group. This suggests that hummingbirds will not stay at a plant as long if it has a smaller nectar reward.

Why doesn't nectar robbing decrease seed set in some bee-pollinated plants? - Janice Y. Park (2015)
Herbal impact on nectar robbing is species specific by pollinator species (Maloof and Inouye 2014). Unlike hummingbird pollinated plants, some bee-pollinated species does not suffer reproductive loss by nectar robbing (Maloof 2001, Mayer et al. 2014, Maloof and Inouye 2014). This observational study is investigating the probability that Bombus.sp forage either Mertensia ciliata or Corydalis caseana legitimately at least once before the flower is robbed. I also measured population-label robbing rate. I bagged the flower two days before, and on the days of experiment I waited in front of the uncovered flowers in order to voice- record Bumble bees’ visit type (legitimate vs. robbing). Furthermore, I conducted transects on the flower patch, and every time I saw the bee I recorded their visit type. Bombus sp. (B.flavifrons, B. mixtus. B. bifarius, B.appositus) was very likely visit legitimately first before it robbed (94.12 %, n=32), than robbing first (5.88%, n=2). Populational robbing rate was 8.98% (n=167), 35.29% (n=34) for C.caseana and 6.77%(n=133) for M. ciliata. Though this is observational study, I speculate that Bombus sp. is able to recognize flowers with low nectar volume. Unlike hummingbird that avoid low nectar flowers(Irwin 2000), I am guessing bumble bee may rob the flower to extract last bit of nectar. Therefore, nectar robbing may be more of a “Plan B” then “Contract Breaking” to both Bombus sp. and studied plant species, for flowers may already receive pollination, and Bombus sp. could extract last bit of energy.

Fine-Grained Distribution of a Non-Native Resource Can Alter the Population Dynamics of a Native Consumer - Mifuyu Nakajima; C. L. Boggs (PloS one, 2015)
New interactions with non-native species can alter selection pressures on native species. Here, we examined the effect of the spatial distribution of a non-native species, a factor that determines ecological and evolutionary outcomes but that is poorly understood, particularly on a fine scale. Specifically, we explored a native butterfly population and a non-native plant on which the butterfly oviposits despite the plant's toxicity to larvae. We developed an individual-based model to describe movement and oviposition behaviors of each butterfly, which were determined by plant distribution and the butterfly's host preference genotype. We estimated the parameter values of the model from rich field data. We simulated various patterns of plant distributions and compared the rates of butterfly population growth and changes in the allele frequency of oviposition preference. Neither the number nor mean area of patches of non-native species affected the butterfly population, whereas plant abundance, patch shape, and distance to the nearest native and non-native patches altered both the population dynamics and genetics. Furthermore, we found a dramatic decrease in population growth rates when we reduced the distance to the nearest native patch from 147 m to 136 m. Thus changes in the non-native resource distribution that are critical to the fate of the native herbivore could only be detected at a fine-grained scale that matched the scale of a female butterfly's movement. In addition, we found that the native butterfly population was unlikely to be rescued by the exclusion of the allele for acceptance of the non-native plant as a host. This study thus highlights the importance of including both ecological and evolutionary dynamics in analyses of the outcome of species interactions and provides insights into habitat management for non-native species.

Male bumble bees are important pollinators of a late-blooming plant - Jane E. Ogilvie; J. D. Thomson (Arthropod-Plant Interactions, 2015)
Overall, male bumble bees are common and capable pollinators of G. parryi and in some years and sites could be more important than workers, and animal sexes may differ in their pollinator performance in other systems.

Phenological responses to climate change do not exhibit phylogenetic signal in a subalpine plant community - Paul J. CaraDonna; David W. Inouye (Ecology, 2015)
Phylogenetic relationships may underlie species‐specific phenological sensitivities to abiotic variation and may help to predict these responses to climate change. Although shared evolutionary history may mediate both phenology and phenological sensitivity to abiotic variation, few studies have explicitly investigated whether this is the case. We explore phylogenetic signal in flowering phenology and in phenological sensitivity to temperature and snowmelt using a 39‐year record of flowering from the Colorado Rocky Mountains, USA that includes dates of first, peak, and last flowering, and flowering duration for 60 plant species in a subalpine plant community. Consistent with other studies, we found evidence in support of phylogenetic signal in first flowering date. However, the strength and significance of that signal were inconsistent across other measures of flowering in this plant community: peak flowering date exhibited the strongest phylogenetic signal, followed by first flowering date; last flowering date and duration of flowering exhibited patterns indistinguishable from random trait evolution. In contrast to first and peak flowering date, phenological sensitivities of all flowering measures to temperature and snowmelt did not exhibit a phylogenetic signal. These findings show that within ecological communities, phylogenetic signal in phenology does not necessarily imply phylogenetic signal in phenological sensitivities to abiotic variation.

Geographic variation in flowering phenology in Boechera stricta: testing for adaptive response to climate across the species range - R. Walker (2015)
As climate continues to shift, species existing over broad and variable ranges must exhibit the ability to adapt functional traits to novel environmental conditions. In this study, I used a large-scale common garden experiment to examine the variation in flowering time of 137 Boechera stricta (Brassicaceae) genotypes, representing populations from across the species range. The experiment found variance in date of first open flower among genotypes, with those originating at northern and high-elevation (i.e. shorter growing season) sites flowering sooner than those from southern and low-elevation sites. These results suggested that adaptation of flowering phenology has occurred on a fine scale and is driven by local environmental conditions historically experienced at each genotype’s site of origin. Broader-scale phenological adaptation was investigated by partitioning the genotypes into six population groups based on genetic divergence over approximately 2,000 generations; however, evidence for adaptation on this scale was not found. The finding that B. stricta has evolved on a fine scale in accordance with the local environment of origin may demonstrate the species’ ability to continue adapting to changing climatic conditions.

Elevational and temporal variation in Ipomopsis floral and vegetative traits. - G. Trujillo (2015)
Exploring the geographical and temporal movement of hybrid zones provides practical evidence for conservation biologists investigating the dynamics of species invasions (Buggs 2007). Genetically based clines in floral traits can also help us to understand potential adaptation in responses to climate change. We re-measured floral traits in Ipomopsis in 12 populations along an elevational gradient in Poverty Gulch, Gunnison County that was first measured in 1991 and 1992. Corolla length increased by 4.4 mm on average and corolla width by 0.11mm on average between 1992 and 2015. In a common garden experiment, we also found a genetic and environmental basis for variation in corolla length and anther position. Since there is a genetic component to the variation, the change in corolla length over 23 years could represent an evolutionary change rather than just a response to environment. Unlike corolla length, corolla width did not change systematically over time when supplementary data from additional years were compared. Additionally, anther position varied significantly only at the lower elevational sites between 1992 and 2015. Floral trait variation in this hybrid zone involves a complex assortment of selection mediated by multiple pollinators and varied environmental conditions that may be the cause of differential change in floral traits throughout the cline.

Alfalfa reference crop evapotranspiration in Colorado and its use for irrigation scheduling - Abdulkariem Mukhtar Aljrbi; Davis, Jessica G.; Andales, Allan A.; Qian, Yaling; Hansen, Neil (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
The goal of irrigation scheduling is efficient use of water such that water is applied to the field for optimal crop production. Previous studies have optimized irrigation scheduling using different models to manage sprinkler irrigation. This research evaluated approaches for obtaining alfalfa reference evapotranspiration (ETr) and its use in a new irrigation scheduling model for a furrow irrigation system. The objectives of this research were to: 1) Compare seasonal trends of daily ETr from the American Society of Civil Engineers Standardized Penman-Monteith (ASCE-SPM) equation and the Penman-Kimberly (PK) equation along a climatic gradient in Colorado, 2) Verify the agreement between calculated ETr from the ASCE-SPM equation and measured ETr from a lysimeter during the 2010 season for the Arkansas Valley of Colorado and correct the lysimeter ETr for alfalfa overgrowth, and 3) Test the ASCE-SPM ETr along with a locally adapted Kcr curve for corn in an irrigation scheduling spreadsheet tool for simulating the daily soil water deficit of furrow irrigated corn in northeast Colorado. The two reference ET equations were compared using R2, Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE), Relative Error (RE), and index of agreement (d). The R2 values ranged from 0.93 to 0.99; d ranged from 0.98 to 0.99, RMSE ranged from 0.29 to 0.75 mm/d, and RE ranged from -6.35 to 1.91 %. In a comparison of the ASCE-SPM and PK equations at the Fort Collins and Rogers Mesa sites in 2011, differences were observed between the energy balance and aerodynamic terms of each equation. The energy budget calculated by the ASCE-SPM was generally 28% lower than the energy budget calculated by the PK equation at both locations for 2011. On the other hand, the aerodynamic term calculated by the ASCE-SPM equation was from 27 - 28 % higher than the aerodynamic term calculated from PK during most of 2011 at both locations. The second objective of this research compared alfalfa ET measured with a lysimeter in the center of a 4.06 ha furrow irrigated field at the Colorado State University Arkansas Valley Research Center in Rocky Ford, CO to the calculated values from the ASCE-SPM equation in periods of reference conditions in 2010. Four days were selected when alfalfa in the lysimeter was 50 - 55 cm tall, unstressed, completely covering the ground, but with its canopy extending beyond the outer walls of the lysimeter. On these dates, hourly lysimeter ETr was 0.08 to 0.11 mm/h higher than ASCE-SPM ETr. The theoretical surface area of the lysimeter was 9.181 m², while the observed effective canopy area was up to 12.461 m² due to overgrowth. Surface area corrections for the overgrowth increased the index of agreement (d) between hourly lysimeter ETr and ASCE-SPM ETr from the 0.96 - 0.98 range to the 0.99 - 1.0 range. These results showed that it is important to use the correct effective canopy area when computing ETr from a weighing lysimeter. The CIS model for calculating water deficit under a furrow irrigation system with the addition of some data from field measurements such as soil moisture content, gross irrigation, climate data, and plant height and leaf area index generated good results. The water deficit under corn was simulated at the Limited Irrigation Research Farm (LIRF) located near Greeley, Colorado during the years 2010, 2011 and 2012. Daily corn crop ET (ETc) calculated from daily ASCE-SPM ETr and a locally-derived crop coefficient curve (Kcr) were used by the CIS for daily soil water deficit calculations via water balance. This data was used to test a furrow irrigation system via the CIS model and to simulate the field irrigation by predicting the time and the amount of water for the next irrigation. The results showed good agreement between calculated and measured deficits where index of agreement (d) ranged from 0.5 to 0.99 for most years of this study, specifically when measurements of soil water content (SWC) were inserted bi-weekly or monthly. The RMSE did not exceed 2.54 mm when using SWC once per season in 2011, while bi-weekly measurements recorded d to be 0.96 in 2010, 0.99 in 2011 and 0.70 in 2012. Also, the CIS showed that irrigation water usage could be reduced by 30 to 50% through use of CIS.

Causes and consequences of dominant and subdominant plant species effects on ecosystem function: using above-and belowground traits in an alpine meadow system - H. Thayer (2015)
While there has been extensive studies done on how dominant affect community dynamics and ecosystem function, fewer studies address the relative influence of dominant vs. subdominant species to affect systems. Further, not enough studies have been done addressing the role of dominant vs. subdominant species effects on above- and belowground functional traits that influence ecosystem function (Mariotte 2014). Our study addressed how functional traits of dominant and subdominant species mediated ecosystem processes such as the input and output of carbon. In an alpine meadow system, we conducted removals of dominant and subdominant species to see how above- and belowground functional traits—specific leaf area (SLA) and specific root length (SRL) respectively—and ecosystem functions (leaf area index (LAI) and soil respiration) were affected by the loss of either species. We established a randomized plot design plant removal experiment and measured carbon input (via LAI) and carbon output (via soil respiration) over a span of three years from 2013 to 2015 and above (SLA) and belowground traits (SRL) of dominant and subdominant species in 2015. We found that only aboveground functional traits (SLA) and ecosystem carbon input (LAI) responded to plant removals with carbon input increasing linearly with higher SLA in control than removal plots. On the other hand, the belowground traits (SRL) did not respond to our removal treatments and ecosystem carbon output initially increased with the loss of dominant species, but treatments converged in their responses overtime. Our results indicate that the loss of either a dominant or subdominant species would further affect climate change because carbon input decreased with the loss of either species, while the carbon output remained the same.

Disturbance legacies and nutrient limitation influence interactions between grazers and algae in high elevation streams - B. L. Peckarsky; A. R. McIntosh; M. Alvarez; Jennifer M. Moslemi (Ecosphere, 2015)
Debate about control of interaction strength among species is fueled by variation in environmental contexts affecting food webs. We used extensive surveys and two field experiments to test the individual and interactive influences of variation in the assemblages and associated traits of grazers as shaped by the legacy of disturbance, nutrient limitation and the presence of top predators on the accrual of basal resources. We quantified hydrologic variation and streambed movement to describe the legacy of disturbance and sampled biota of 20 streams over five years in a high‐elevation catchment in Colorado, USA. Grazer assemblages switched from caddisfly‐dominated to mayfly‐dominated as disturbance increased. We manipulated the composition of grazer assemblages and the availability of nutrients (N and P) within flow‐through mesocosms assembled adjacent to 10 streams, and also deployed larger in‐stream channels manipulating the presence of top predators (brook trout) in five streams varying in disturbance regimes. In both experiments we compared the rate of accrual of benthic algae and the strength of grazer‐algal interactions among treatments. We observed no indirect effects of top predators on grazer mobility, grazer consumption of algae, or accrual of algal biomass (no trophic cascades). However, in both experiments accrual rates of algae yielded a unimodal pattern and grazer impacts on algae decreased with increasing disturbance, but only at ambient (limiting) nutrient conditions. When nutrients were amended in the mesocosm experiment, algal accrual was uniformly high and grazer impacts on algae were consistently low. Reduced algae accrual at high disturbance levels may be explained by direct effects of environmental harshness on algae, and at low disturbance by indirect effects on grazer traits (behaviors) rather than on grazer density. In more benign streams per capita and per unit biomass grazer impacts on algae were high and drift dispersal was low, both behaviors that reduced accrual of algae. We conclude that nutrient limitation and indirect effects of disturbance on accrual of algae mediated by grazer traits can be stronger than indirect effects of predators on algae, providing a new contribution to the debate about the influence of environmental context on the strength of food web interactions.

Evaluating genetic mechanisms and performance characteristics of alternative oilseed crops for on-farm biofuel production in Colorado - Brian Campbell; Byrne, Patrick; Johnson, Jerry; Seshadri, Arathi; McKay, John (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2015)
Dryland winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) cropping systems dominate most of the agricultural landscape in Colorado’s semi-arid eastern plains. Since this area’s climate is characterized by frequent heat and drought, it is important to maximize water use efficiency to make agricultural lands as productive as possible. Adding a spring crop in rotation with winter wheat intensifies the rotation, increasing water use efficiency by up to 37%. Recent research has explored further intensifying this rotation by adding an oilseed crop into a wheat – spring crop – fallow rotation during the fallow period. Ideally, the oilseed crop acts as a cover crop for part of the season and leaves enough time at the end of the season to regenerate water in the soil profile before planting wheat in the fall. The oil from this crop can be used to produce on-farm biofuels, offsetting petroleum diesel costs without displacing high-value food crops. Additionally, the meal from this crop acts as a value-added byproduct by providing feed for livestock. Since traditional oilseeds such as soybean (Glycine max) and rapeseed (Brassica napus) do not perform well in Colorado, several alternative oilseeds have been tested to assess whether they can fill this niche. Camelina (Camelina sativa) has shown great potential, with high oil content and inherent resistance to many biotic and abiotic stressors. Other potential oilseeds include Brassica juncea and Brassica carinata, but both of these species have exhibited longer life cycles and lower yields than camelina. A major challenge to camelina production in Colorado is a susceptibility to heat stress during reproductive periods. Both short periods of intense heat stress and longer periods of mild heat stress can cause floral and seed abortion, resulting in reduced yield. In the current study, a quantitative trait locus (QTL) approach is used to identify heat and drought tolerance mechanisms and yield components, explore the extent of pleiotropy, epistasis, and linkage, and identify promising lines for study or production. Genetic resources for camelina are becoming more readily available and a newly developed genetic map with improved marker density was used for QTL discovery. Replicated field trials were performed during the 2014 growing season in Fort Collins and Greeley, Colorado, under differential irrigation treatments at each site to collect phenotypic data on a variety of traits. Sixteen new QTL were discovered from this data, along with nine QTL using data from Colorado trials of the same population in 2009 and 2010 performed by Enjalbert (2011). Seven QTL were discovered for yield, however, no QTL were found in more than two environments, indicating a lack of stable QTL for this trait. This was in contrast to results from Enjalbert (2011) where stable QTL for yield across environments were detected using the original, mainly AFLP generated, genetic map by Gehringer et al. (2006). This underscores the high amount of variation that can be caused by environment. QTL for other traits, such as plant height and days to flowering, were detected that were more robust, however, no QTL were detected with either data set that spanned more than three environments. Two loci were identified that affected multiple traits, supplying evidence of either pleiotropy or close linkage of genes. Several RIL performed well in multiple environments, indicating potential for production in Colorado, however, these lines were not in common with previous studies, so further trials will be needed to confirm consistently stable yields. In addition to the camelina QTL study, a two-year variety trial of Brassica carinata was performed in Fort Collins, CO during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons under limited and full irrigation. Collaboration with the private Canadian oilseed company Agrisoma Biosciences spurred interest in reevaluating the potential of this alternative oilseed in Colorado cropping systems. Agrisoma Biosciences developed early flowering and early maturing germplasm that performs well in the Canadian prairie and is interested in testing their germplasm in new regions with potential for production. The company provided six lines for the trial, five experimental lines and one commercial check cultivar. Mean flowering time was over 13 days longer than previously tested African accessions that had been deemed too late flowering to be competitive in Colorado’s climate. Mean yields were low as well, at 669 kg ha⁻¹. The commercial check cultivar, A100, outperformed all of the experimental lines, with a mean yield of 1081 kg ha⁻¹ across environments. With a wide margin between the other lines and A100, this commercial cultivar was clearly more successful than any of the experimental lines. However, yields of this one cultivar were not sufficiently impressive to recommend on-farm testing of the crop.

FOSSIL PLANTS AND PALYNOMORPHS FROM THE LATE PALEOZOIC CUTLER FORMATION, EASTERN PARADOX BASIN - Kendall R. Grazul (2015)
The late Paleozoic Cutler Formation, where exposed near the modern-day town of Gateway, Colorado, has traditionally been interpreted as the product of alluvial fan deposition within the easternmost portion of the Paradox Basin. The Paradox Basin formed between the western margin of the Uncompahgre Uplift segment of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains and the western paleoshoreline of the North American portion of Pangea. The Paradox Basin region is commonly thought to have experienced semi-arid to arid conditions and warm temperatures during the Pennsylvanian and Permian. Evidence described in this paper support prior interpretations regarding paleoclimate conditions and the inferred depositional environment for the Cutler Formation near Gateway, Colorado. Plant fossils collected from the late Paleozoic Cutler Formation in The Palisade Wilderness Study Area (managed by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management) of western Colorado include Calamites, Walchia, Pecopteris, and many calamitean fragments. The flora collected is interpreted to have lived in an arid or semi-arid environment that included wet areas of limited areal extent located near the apex of an alluvial fan system. Palynological analysis of samples collected revealed the presence of the common Pennsylvanian palynomorphs Thymospora pseudothiessenii and Lophotriletes microsaetosus. These fossils suggest that warm and at least seasonally and locally wet conditions existed in the area during the time that the plants were growing. All evidence of late Paleozoic plant life collected during this study was found along the western margin of the Uncompahgre Uplift segment of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. During the late Paleozoic, sediment was eroded from the Uncompahgre Uplift and deposited in the adjacent Paradox Basin. The preservation of plant fossils in the most proximal parts of the Paradox Basin is remarkable due to the fact that much of the proximal Cutler Formation consists of conglomerates and sandstones deposited as debris flow and by fluvial systems. The plants must have grown in a protected setting, possibly an abandoned channel on the alluvial fan, and been rapidly buried in the subsiding Paradox Basin. It is likely that there was abundant vegetation in and adjacent to low-lying wet areas at the time the Cutler Formation was deposited.

The conservation biology of the Uncompahgre fritillary and the related northern dingy fritillary - Hugh B. Britten (Montana State University ScholarWorks (Montana State University), 2015)

Turnover and reliability of flower communities in extreme environments: Insights from long-term phenology data sets - K. Wright; K. L. Vanderbilt; David W. Inouye; C. David Bertelsen; T. M. Crimmins (Journal of Arid Environments, 2015)
Looking at the entire flower community as a resource for foraging pollinators, it is found that flowers are an unreliable resource, especially in unpredictable environments.

Quantifying direct vs. indirect effects of nectar robbers on male and female components of plant fitness - R. E. Irwin; P. E. Howell; Candace Galen (Journal of Ecology, 2015)
SummaryPlants interact simultaneously with both mutualists and antagonists. While webs of plant–animal interactions in natural systems can be highly complex, most interactions can be simplified into those that are either direct (mediated through pairwise interactions) or indirect (mediated through third‐party species). Mechanistic studies of the direct and indirect pathways by which foliar herbivores affect plants have been well explored; however, mechanistic explorations of how floral herbivores, such as nectar robbers, affect total plant fitness via direct vs. indirect pathways have received less attention.The goal of this study was to assess the importance of direct vs. pollinator‐mediated indirect effects of a floral antagonist on female and male components of plant fitness. We focused on the hummingbird‐pollinated plant scarlet gilia,Ipomopsis aggregata, which is nectar‐robbed by the bumblebeeBombus occidentalis. Prior studies have found evidence for pollinator‐mediated indirect effects of robbing on female and male components ofI. aggregatafitness, but the mechanisms by which these indirect effects occur, and experimental evidence supporting or refuting direct effects of robbing, have been lacking.We found no evidence for direct effects of robbing on plant fitness. Robbers did not act as pollinators ofI. aggregatanor did they directly affect seed production by making nectar‐robber holes or removing nectar in hand‐pollinated flowers. Moreover, robbing had no direct effect on pollen production per flower or the ability of pollen from robbed flowers to sire seeds in hand pollinations.However, nectar robbing had indirect effects on plant reproduction mediated through per‐visit pollinator effectiveness at depositing pollen in robbed vs. unrobbed flowers. A simple model of a plant‐robber‐pollinator system suggested that robbing effects in general may occur through more indirect mechanisms when nectar removal by robbers is high relative to nectar replenishment, and that compensation for robbing is then more profitable through the production of additional flowers.Synthesis. Our results highlight the importance of indirect effects in mediating the fitness consequences of species interactions.

Using the literature to test pollination syndromes - some methodological cautions - J. Ollerton; A. R. Rech; Nickolas M. Waser; Mary V. Price (Journal of Pollination Ecology, 2015)
“Pollination syndromes” are specific combinations of floral traits that are proposed to evolve convergently across angiosperm lineages in response to different types of animal pollinators. In spite of their long history, pollination syndromes have not been tested adequately–they rarely have been examined critically to determine how well they describe floral trait diversity or predict pollinators. In a recent meta-analysis of data from the literature, Rosas-Guerrero et al. (2014) provide a welcome test that draws on insights from past studies. At the same time, their study illustrates several difficulties of meta-analysis approaches in general, and for pollination biology in particular. Here we discuss those difficulties and propose some solutions. We first consider how to gather studies from the literature without introducing unintended bias, such as the old-fashioned method of working backward from cited literature. We next consider how to deal with difficulties that invariably arise when extracting and analyzing often-incomplete information from heterogeneous studies. Finally we discuss issues of interpreting and presenting the results in the most informative manner. We conclude that although Rosas-Guerrero et al. (2014) and other studies such as Ollerton et al. (2009) have arrived at different conclusions about the utility of pollination syndromes, their results are not necessarily incompatible.

To what extent does road dust affect sexual reproduction in different plant species? - G. Casco (2015)

The next century of ecology - David W. Inouye (Science, 2015)
The science of ecology is about relationships—among organisms and habitats, on all scales—and how they provide information that helps us better understand our world. In the past 100 years, the field has moved from observations to experiments to forecasting. Next week, the Ecological Society of America (ESA), the world's largest ecological society, celebrates its centennial in Baltimore, an opportunity to reflect on the field's past and future. The gathering of international scientists, policy-makers, and students will not only explore the knowledge in hand, but consider what else is needed to chart a course over the next century in which humanity sustains and even improves the relationships that underpin life on Earth.

How do distributions of belowground grass-fungal symbioses change over altitudinal gradients in the Colorado Rocky Mountains? - K. Clausen (2015)
Fungal symbionts are pervasive and crucial components of terrestrial ecosystems. They can often reduce the effects of stressors such as drought and heat and can increase nutrient and water uptake for plants. Because of these roles, fungal symbionts may be important in mitigating the stressors of climate change. Because plants will likely move up in elevation in search of more favorable environments as climate change occurs, altitudinal gradients can be used to model the effects of climate change. We aimed to gain an understanding of the distribution of fungal symbionts over altitudinal gradients in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. We collected roots from 14 different grass species over 6 altitudinal gradients and quantified colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, fine arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, dark septate endophytes, and saprotrophs. The distribution of fungal symbionts over altitudinal gradients is not well understood and many studies focus on only one host species, one fungal group, or use only one gradient. We looked at multiple host species, fungal groups, gradients, and variables in an attempt to isolate the most important factors in determining distributions of fungal symbionts. We found that colonization patterns with altitude vary by host and many other factors may play important roles in determining the distribution of fungal symbionts.

Effects of early snowmelt and frost on plant-pollinator interactions. - L. Howe-Kerr (2015)
As a result of climate change, plants are experiencing shifts in flowering phenology due to early snowmelt, and thus becoming more susceptible to damage from spring frost events. These direct effects of snowmelt and frost on plants can indirectly impact plant- pollinator interactions, yet few studies have examined these indirect effects. At the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, we conducted a series of experiments to answer the following questions: 1) Does variation in the phenology of flowering plants affect pollinator visitation rate? and 2) How do species and community level plant-pollinator responses to early snowmelt and frost damage compare? At our study site, we had 40 2m2 plots assigned to one of four treatment types: 1) early snowmelt and frost, 2) early snowmelt no frost, 3) natural snowmelt and frost, and 4) natural snowmelt and no frost, Pollinator observations were conducted over 8 weeks and visitation rates were compared among treatment type. We found that early snow removal plots had higher pollinator visitation rates. Further, frost treatment had no effect on pollinator visitation rate overall, but affected certain early blooming flower species. Overall, we found that early snowmelt and frost affect plant species differently; some species, and therefore some plant-pollinator interactions, are more resilient to changes in flowering phenology than others.

Convergent ecosystem responses to 23-year ambient and manipulated warming link advancing snowmelt and shrub encroachment to transient and long-term climate–soil carbon feedback - J. Harte; S. R. Saleska; C. Levy (Global Change Biology, 2015)
Ecosystem responses to climate change can exert positive or negative feedbacks on climate, mediated in part by slow- moving factors such as shifts in vegetation community composition. Long-term experimental manipulations can be used to examine such ecosystem responses, but they also present another opportunity: inferring the extent to which contemporary climate change is responsible for slow changes in ecosystems under ambient conditions. Here, using 23 years of data, we document a shift from nonwoody to woody vegetation and a loss of soil carbon in ambient plots and show that these changes track previously shown similar but faster changes under experimental warming. This allows us to infer that climate change is the cause of the observed shifts in ambient vegetation and soil carbon and that the vegetation responses mediate the observed changes in soil carbon. Our findings demonstrate the realism of an experimental manipulation, allow attribution of a climate cause to observed ambient ecosystem changes, and dem- onstrate how a combination of long-term study of ambient and experimental responses to warming can identify mechanistic drivers needed for realistic predictions of the conditions under which ecosystems are likely to become carbon sources or sinks over varying timescales.

Integrating macroecological metrics and community taxonomic structure - J. Harte; A. Rominger; Y. Zhang (Ecology Letters, 2015)
John Harte,1* Andrew Rominger2 We extend macroecological theory based on the maximum entropy principle from species level to and Wenyu Zhang3 higher taxonomic categories, thereby predicting distributions of species richness across genera or families and the dependence of abundance and metabolic rate distributions on taxonomic tree structure. Predictions agree with qualitative trends reported in studies on hyper-dominance in tropical tree species, mammalian body size distributions and patterns of rarity in worldwide plant communities. Predicted distributions of species richness over genera or families for birds, arthro- pods, plants and microorganisms are in excellent agreement with data. Data from an intertidal invertebrate community, but not from a dispersal-limited forest, are in excellent agreement with a predicted new relationship between body size and abundance. Successful predictions of the origi- nal species level theory are unmodified in the extended theory. By integrating macroecology and taxonomic tree structure, maximum entropy may point the way towards a unified framework for understanding phylogenetic community structure.

Inferring Regional-Scale Species Diversity from Small-Plot Censuses - J. Harte; J. Kitzes (PLOS ONE, 2015)
Estimation of the number of species at spatial scales too large to census directly is a long- standing ecological challenge. A recent comprehensive census of tropical arthropods and trees in Panama provides a unique opportunity to apply an inference procedure for up-scal- ing species richness and thereby make progress toward that goal. Confidence in the under- lying theory is first established by showing that the method accurately predicts the species abundance distribution for trees and arthropods, and in particular accurately captures the rare tail of the observed distributions. The rare tail is emphasized because the shape of the species-area relationship is especially influenced by the numbers of rare species. The infer- OPEN ACCESS ence procedure is then applied to estimate the total number of arthropod and tree species at Citation: Harte J, Kitzes J (2015) Inferring Regional- spatial scales ranging from a 6000 ha forest reserve to all of Panama, with input data only Scale Species Diversity from Small-Plot Censuses. from censuses in 0.04 ha plots. The analysis suggests that at the scale of the reserve there PLoS ONE 10(2): e0117527. doi:10.1371/journal. are roughly twice as many arthropod species as previously estimated. For the entirety of pone.0117527 Panama, inferred tree species richness agrees with an accepted empirical estimate, while Academic Editor: Maura (Gee) Geraldine Chapman, inferred arthropod species richness is significantly below a previous published estimate that University of Sydney, AUSTRALIA has been criticized as too high. An extension of the procedure to estimate species richness Received: August 21, 2014 at continental scale is proposed. Accepted: December 29, 2014 Published: February 23, 2015 Copyright: © 2015 Harte, Kitzes. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any

Gender inequality in predispersal seed predation contributes to female seed set advantage in a gynodioecious species - G. Clarke; Alison K. Brody (Ecology, 2015)
Most flowering plants are hermaphrodites. However, in gynodioecious species, some members of the population are male‐sterile and reproduce only by setting seed, while others gain fitness through both male and female function. How females compensate for the loss of male function remains unresolved for most gynodioecious species. Here, as with many plants, fitness differences may be influenced by interactions with multiple species. However, whether multiple species interactions result in gender‐specific fitness differences remains unknown. Using observational data from 2009–2010, we quantified seed set of the two sex morphs of Polemonium foliosissimum and asked how it is affected by pollination, and seed predation from a dipteran predispersal seed predator (Anthomyiidae: Hylemya sp.). We assessed seed production and losses to predation in 27 populations for one year and in six populations for a second year. Females set significantly more seed than did hermaphrodites in both years. Of the fitness components we assessed, including the number of flowers per plant, fruit set, seeds/fruit, and proportion of fruits destroyed by Hylemya, only fruit destruction differed significantly between the sexes. In one year, seeds/fruit and predation had a stronger effect on seed set for hermaphrodites than for females. Because predispersal seed predators do not pollinate flowers, their effects may depend on successful pollination of flowers on which they oviposit. To examine if genders differed in pollen limitation and seed predation and/or their interactive effects, in 2011 we hand‐pollinated flowers and removed seed predator eggs in a fully factorial design. Both sexes were pollen limited, but their degree of pollen limitation did not differ. However, predation reduced seed set more for hermaphrodites than for females. We found no significant interaction between hand pollen and seed predation, and no interaction between hand pollination and gender. Our results suggest that while interactions with both pollinators and seed predators affect reproductive success, floral enemies can cause inequality in seed set between genders. The next step is to understand how the seed set advantage affects long‐term fitness and persistence of females in gynodioecious populations.

Flies and Flowers III: Ecology of Foraging and Pollination - David W. Inouye; B. M. H. Larson; P. G. Kevan (Journal of Pollination Ecology, 2015)
Diptera are important flower visitors and pollinators for many plant species and in a variety of habitats. Although Diptera are not as well studied as other groups of pollinators, there is a growing literature that we review here about the ecology of their foraging behaviour and their effectiveness as pollinators. We consider (1) how their foraging is constrained by the interaction among body size, colour, and environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, wind, and light; (2) what is known about their foraging at scales ranging from their movements between flowers on a plant, between individuals in a population, and among species in a community (i.e., constancy); and (3) the evidence for effects of intra- and interspecific competition on foraging. We conclude with a discussion of the effectiveness of Diptera as pollinators. The available data suggest that Diptera exhibit many of the same foraging behaviours as other flower visitors and that they are effective pollinators in both natural and agricultural ecosystems.

Do birds differentiate white noise and deterministic chaos? A playback experiment. - J. Kennen (2015)
Evocative sounds are known to elicit heightened responses from receivers across animal taxa. Many species of caregivers specifically have been shown to have increased arousal from infant baboon screams providing a unique conspecific identification for baboon mothers to discriminate their young from nearby infants (Rendall et al. 2009) to women decreasing their parasympathetic drive after exposure to infants crying, impelling them to react and care for the infants (Tkaczyszyn et al. 2012) to infant giant pandas (Ailuropoda melaneuca). Despite them being relatively common, the function of these nonlinearities is less well-understood. One hypothesis suggests that non-linearities function to increase fear and arousal in receivers (Blumstein and Recapet 2009; Slaughter et al., 2013). Playback experiments have been very useful in evaluation of this nonlinearity and fear hypothesis. In them, investigators have used white noise as a substitute for deterministic chaos. Determinstic chaos contains irregular oscillations with patterns of energy that are irregular and widely distributed over frequency bands (Beckers and Cate 2006). In acoustic spectographs, chaos and noise appear superficially similar, but structurally they are different. We designed two experiments to clarify whether American robins (Turdus migratorius) and warbling vireos (Vireo gilvus) discriminate between white noise and deterministic chaos. Playback experiments consisted of broadcasting one of four types of stimuli at a time to a relaxed bird: white noise or deterministic chaos created from either logistic wave form or a Chua oscillator, and one control stimulus, one of four exemplars of Tropical Kingbird (Tyrannus melancholicus) vocalizations. Robins engaged in significantly less relaxed behavior after hearing noise compared to the kingbird treatment, and all noise/non-linearity treatments led to significantly less relaxed behavior than the kingbird treatment (pair-wise comparisons between kingbird and chua chaos. Pairwise comparisons did show that after hearing chua chaos, warbling vireos decreased locomotion significantly compared to kingbird. Our results suggest that American robins and Warbling vireos do not discriminate noise from at least two types of deterministic chaos: chua chaos and logistic chaos, thus indicating that future playback studies can continue to use white noise as a nonlinear stimulus. 3

Floral herbivory: a possible mechanism maintaining a flower color polymorphism in a selfing species, Boechera stricta. - Michaela Keefe (2015)
Many studies have shown that pollinators are largely responsible for changing and maintaining flower color morph frequencies in nature. However, the preferences of pollinators do not always reflect observed frequencies in nature, especially in self-pollinating species. Thus, non-pollinator forces could be acting to change color morph frequencies. To test this hypothesis I used two species of Lepidopteran larvae and exposed them to floral and foliar tissue from white and purple Boechera stricta plants using choice and no-choice tests. I also observed natural populations for damage to leaves and reproductive structures. In the choice and no-choice tests, I found that both generalist larvae and specialist on Brassicaceae larvae preferred tissue from white over purple color morphs. In nature there was no difference in damage to plants of either color across all sites. Observed natural damage did not depend on the frequency of the purple morph, nor did frequencies differ between sites. There was also no relationship between florivory and folivory. As specialist and generalists differed in their preferences, this suggests that herbivores may be able to alter color morph frequencies in nature if they have the ability to distinguish among a plant’s secondary chemicals. These findings may provide insight into herbivore preference affecting observed color morph frequencies in nature of a selfing species.

Climate variability slows evolutionary responses of Colias butterflies to recent climate change - J. G. Kingsolver; L. B. Buckley (Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 2015)
How does recent climate warming and climate variability alter fitness, phenotypic selection and evolution in natural populations? We combine biophysical, demographic and evolutionary models with recent climate data to address this question for the subalpine and alpine butterfly, Colias meadii , in the southern Rocky Mountains. We focus on predicting patterns of selection and evolution for a key thermoregulatory trait, melanin (solar absorptivity) on the posterior ventral hindwings, which affects patterns of body temperature, flight activity, adult and egg survival, and reproductive success in Colias . Both mean annual summer temperatures and thermal variability within summers have increased during the past 60 years at subalpine and alpine sites. At the subalpine site, predicted directional selection on wing absorptivity has shifted from generally positive (favouring increased wing melanin) to generally negative during the past 60 years, but there is substantial variation among years in the predicted magnitude and direction of selection and the optimal absorptivity. The predicted magnitude of directional selection at the alpine site declined during the past 60 years and varies substantially among years, but selection has generally been positive at this site. Predicted evolutionary responses to mean climate warming at the subalpine site since 1980 is small, because of the variability in selection and asymmetry of the fitness function. At both sites, the predicted effects of adaptive evolution on mean population fitness are much smaller than the fluctuations in mean fitness due to climate variability among years. Our analyses suggest that variation in climate within and among years may strongly limit evolutionary responses of ectotherms to mean climate warming in these habitats.

Neidiopsis hamiltonii sp. nov., N. weilandii sp. nov., N. levanderi and N. wulffii from western North America - L. Bahls (Diatom Research, 2014)

Quantitative mineralogy and distributions of minerals of the Green River Formation, Piceance Creek Basin, western Colorado - Sheven Poole (Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University), 2014)
Over thirty-five minerals have been identified in the Green River formation of the Piceance Creek Basin, using quantitative X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) bulk analysis.Fifteen major phases occur at over 5 wt% average in 117 samples spanning the thickness of the formation.Integrated data from cores, outcrops, and the USGS represent two lacustrine depositional environments: basin margin shallow-water and basin center deep-water.Results are presented in a stratigraphic framework of six lake stages.Mineral distributions support a permanently stratified saline lake model characterized by a chemocline that separates a less saline upper water layer from a more saline, alkaline, and reducing lower water layer.Lateral and vertical variations in salinity, alkalinity, redox conditions, silica and CO 2 activities, and depths of the water column and chemocline are proposed to have permitted localized differences in precipitation, preservation, alteration, and formation of authigenic phases across the meromictic lake.Original detrital mineral components contributed to the basin included mainly quartz, clay minerals and feldspars.Reversal of weathering reactions during periods of extreme water chemistry converted clay minerals to authigenic feldspars and other authigenic phases.Distinct assemblages of authigenic minerals differ between the basin center and basin margin locations.Basin center samples are enriched in buddingtonite ((NH 4 )AlSi 3 O 8 *0.5H 2 O), and the saline minerals nahcolite (NaHCO 3 ), dawsonite (NaAl(CO 3 )(OH 2 )), and halite (NaCl).Only trace quantities of saline minerals occur in the basin margin samples, instead, high quantities of the zeolite, analcime (NaAlSi 2 O 6 *H 2 O), are found.Basin center samples are claypoor (10 wt% ave), and organic matter-rich (12 wt% ave).Basin margin samples are clay-rich (24 wt% ave) and relatively organic matter-poor (7 wt% ave).Carbonate minerals represent a large proportion of GRF rocks, and are especially iron rich.Calcite and aragonite form only 12 wt% ave of total carbonates in the basin center.Major changes in relative mineral proportions and assemblages occur in the basin center at two transition zones, which divide the stratigraphic column into three distinct mineral units.The lower mineral unit is richest in quartz, clay minerals, ferrodolomite, and calcite.The lower transition zone is characterized by decreases in clay mineral and quartz quantities, and increases in dawsonite, feldspars, and buddingtonite.The middle mineral unit is mainly composed of xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Carb .... Divalent Carbonate Minerals CEC Cation Exchange Capacity (analysis for clay minerals) CO-1 Colorado Core Hole No. 1Section used for comparison data Corg .Organic Carbon (as opposed to carbon in carbonate minerals) COSTAR..Center for Oil Shale Technology and Research CR-2 .... Oil Shale core used for comparison from Dean, Pitman and Harrach, 1981 DP Douglas Pass Outcrop Sections EDS .. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) Fsp Feldspar Ft .. Feet GRF .Green River Formation ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma -Mass Spectrometer IR .Infrared Spectroscopy I/S .Illite / Smectite Clay Minerals

Modernism on Trial: An Analysis of Historic Preservation Debates in Chicago - Stephen M. Mitchell (2014)
This thesis explores preservation issues regarding modernist architecture in Chicago. As urban and public history research, the project examines the new questions brought to the forefront by recent controversies over the preservation of modernist architecture. Modernism, and an "all concrete" variant known as "Brutalism," popular in the mid-twentieth century, aimed to remove ornament and historical references common in neoclassical, neo-Gothic, Beaux Arts, and Art Deco architecture and replace them with minimal, clean, glass-and-steel buildings. Modernists who, on principle, did not believe in preservation of past forms are now in the unlikely position of making such an argument for their own buildings. Never widely embraced in the first place, Brutalism's concrete faÃ§ades seemed less and less to reflect aesthetic tastes as architects turned back toward historicist styles by the 1980s. As such buildings have grown older, they have become a part of debates within cities across the United States about preservation and the built environment, frequently becoming entangled with city politics and economic interests.

The dead zone : Stephen King's - David Cronenberg; Stephen King; Christopher Walken (キングレコード (発売・販売) eBooks, 2014)
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The causes and maintenance of personality in yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris) - M. B. Petelle (2014)
Describing and quantifying animal personality is now an integral part of behavioral studies because individually distinctive traits may have ecological and evolutionary consequences. Yet, to fully understand how personality traits may respond to selection, one must understand the underlying heritability and genetic correlations between traits. Most studies that have investigated the additive genetic variance of personality traits typically find a moderate amount of heritable variation, but few studies have been conducted on wild populations. Estimating heritability in the wild is important because environmental conditions reveal the often reduced, additive genetic variance found in nature. In addition, to understand how a population may respond to selection, one must identify possible constraints caused by genetic correlations. We estimated the additive genetic variance of docility, exploration, and activity in a wild population of yellow- bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventris), and the additive genetic variance for exploration and activity in a second context. We found little to no significant heritability in these traits (0.033-0.151). We found phenotypic correlations were explained by both genetic and permanent environment correlations but not correlations between maternal effects. This is one of a handful of studies to take a quantitative genetic approach to understand personality traits in the wild, and thus, gives insights into the evolution and maintenance of personality. 60

Field validation of a distribution model for the yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris). - E. Voss (2014)
Species distribution modeling is a powerful ecological tool that combines remotely sensed data with known presence locations to yield habitat suitability predictions that can be applied to a variety of hypotheses and conservation planning efforts, and can also be used on a smaller scale to examine individual species’ habitat preferences. Here, species distribution modeling techniques are applied to the yellow-bellied marmot, Marmota flaviventris, a semi- fossorial, facultatively social rodent that is found across high elevations in much of western North America. M. flaviventris is known to prefer microhabitat patches with characteristics related to predator detection and avoidance; good visibility and the number of large rocks are the best predictors of marmot presence and persistence. To examine the habitat preferences of M. flaviventris, Maximum Entropy was used with environmental variables including slope, visibility, elevation, local geology, and vegetation, as well as 75 presence locations, to produce and verify a model of yellow-bellied marmot habitat preference in the East River Valley surrounding Gothic, Colorado. Statistical verification demonstrated that the model is a significant predictor of marmot presence, and field validation of the model yielded moderate success (72.9% correct predictions, or 97/133 sites). The importance of visibility and slope to the model indicate that predator-related variables are indeed the most important predictors of marmot presence, although the number of large rocks, as well as other potentially relevant biotic factors, were not included in the model. While MaxEnt modeling is generally undertaken on a larger scale, this model’s success indicates that fine resolution modeling with the goal of field validation and examination of small-scale environmental variations is plausible, especially if environmental predictors are carefully selected and informed by a thorough consideration of the ecology of the focal species. Voss 3

Temporal variation in pollen limitation in Hydrophyllum fendleri (Boraginaceae) Individuals. - R. Tsong (2014)
Plant reproduction is highly dependent upon phenology, or biological timing, of flowering. However, little is known about how individuals vary in their flowering schedules relative to the population as a whole or how this variation could lead to differences in reproductive success of individuals. Here, it was shown that individuals of Hydrophyllum fendleri (Boraginaceae) were aggregated in time and that individuals that flowered later had a higher reproductive success than those that flowered earlier in the season. I tested the hypothesis that pollen limitation was responsible for the temporal variation in reproduction observed. Although it was shown that plants were indeed limited in fruit and seed production by pollen receipt, pollen limitation was consistent across the growing season, suggesting that other factors caused the variation in reproduction.

Effects of early snowmelt and climate warming on Valeriana edulis and the insects that depend on it. - A. Theibault (2014)
Global climate change can disrupt ecosystems by impacting the interactions between organisms. I investigated the impact of early snowmelt and warming on the dioecious perennial herb Valeriana edulis, as well as their indirect effects on the aphid species Aphis valerianae and the ants that tend the aphids. The study was conducted in a field that had been partially buried by an avalanche, with the avalanche standing as a proxy for a later snowmelt scenario, and open-top chambers were placed around the bases of half the plants in the experiment to simulate climate warming. Aphids were then placed on the plants and their colonies and interactions with ants were observed over the course of several weeks. I also collected data on the plants’ growth the first, second, and last week of the experiment. I found was that snowmelt had the biggest impact on the plants’ growth and their ability to maintain aphid colonies and attract ants. Sex of the plants also impacted interactions in the system, independently of snowmelt. Warming the plants had no statistically-significant impacts on the plants or their interactions with the insects, though it did seem to have an impact on the total number of ants. These results suggest that changes in snowmelt will be a major driver of changes to ecosystem interactions in the Rocky Mountains.

An Endophyte alters biological characteristics of the grass, Festuca thurberi. - I. Spellman (2014)
Plant-‐fungal symbioses are found in ecosystems worldwide, but relatively little is known about how these two organisms affect each other. This study sought to shed light on this topic. The first experiment tested to see if the presence of an endophyte (genus Epichloë) effected the decomposition rates of its host grass (Festuca thurberi) and on fungal composition in litter, and whether or not the effect is different along elevation gradients. The second experiment tested for survival, growth and biomass differences between plants naturally associated with an endophyte, plants naturally endophyte-‐free, and plants which have had their endophyte removed using the fungicide Benomyl. Results thus far have shown that the presence of an endophyte has had a negative effect on plant biomass and survival over the course of the four years since the experiment was began, which agrees with findings of past studies. Endophyte status does not appear to play a significant role in determining free-‐living fungal associate diversity among plants. However, fungal composition significantly differed between live and dead leaf tissue. Upon the conclusion of this study, we will have gained a greater understanding of ecology of grasses and their symbionts, how endophyte symbioses affect other fungal taxa (decomposers), and how all of these species interactions affect overall ecosystem functioning. Part I: Does endophyte symbiosis alter decomposition along altitudinal gradients?

Asteraceae pollen specialization affects vulnerability to brood parasitism in mason bees (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). - D. M. Spear (2014)
Dietary specialization on “toxic” or unfavorable pollens has multiple evolutionary origins in many bee families, despite such pollen being unsuitable for most generalist bee species. Pollen specialization on unsuitable pollen types must confer other evolutionary benefits; an anti-‐parasitism function may be one. Bees of the family Megachilidae that specialize on composite pollen (of the family Asteraceae) are seldom, if ever, parasitized by sapygid wasps (genus Sapyga), a common brood parasite. In this study, we test the effect of composite pollen diets on sapygid larval development and survival. We raised wasp larvae on three pollen types: composite (Asteraceae), legume (Fabaceae) and generalist (a mix of primarily non-‐composite pollens). Wasp larvae survival was significantly shorter for wasps raised on composite pollen, and larvae failed to reach cocoon-‐spinning stage. However, for the few composite-‐reared wasps that reached second-‐instar, development time to that stage was similar to that of non-‐composite reared wasps. The decrease in survival suggests that composite pollen specialization is an effective strategy to reduce or eliminate sapygid parasitism.

Correlating road dust with reproduction of Ipomopsis aggregate. - J. Solverson (2014)
Roads potentially impact nearly one-fifth of the continental United States. Runoff, traffic disturbance, and maintenance associated with roads can affect both the abiotic and biotic features of roadside ecosystems. Species along unpaved roads are particularly susceptible to road dust effects. Plant physiology, such as gas exchange and overall productivity, is found to deteriorate in increased dust conditions. However, few studies have examined how dust influences plant reproduction. In this study, I examined how road dust impacts pollen delivery, pollen adhesion, and the translation of pollen to seed in Rocky Mountain populations of Ipomopsis aggregata. However, no stage of reproduction in I. aggregata was correlated with different dusting treatments, perhaps because visitation rates and pollen loads were high from high levels of pollinator activity. This study highlights the importance of temporal variation in future studies of road dust effects on plant reproduction.

Effects of water availability on the relationship between seed set and pollen received in Ipomopsis aggregate. - F. Pino (2014)
Plants systems rely on a variety of resources to survive and reproduce. The amount and quality of pollen a flower receives can determine not only the number of seeds that are produced, but also whether they will be viable or not. The purpose of the study looked at the relationship between the amount of pollen received by a flower and the number of seeds produced under varying watering conditions (wet and dry conditions) at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory. The study consisted of 26 Ipomopsis aggregata to look at the relationship between water availability and the changes in the seed to pollen relationship. Our results suggested that water conditions was not a factor in the amount of seeds made per flower, which instead depended more on the amount of pollen received on the stigma.

Effects of road proximity on pollinator visitation and reproductive success of Ipomopsis aggregate. - A. Morales (2014)
Increasing urbanization has led to the expansion of human infrastructure, including road networks. Current research has shown that roads have important ecological effects, ranging from habitat fragmentation to contamination of water runoff. This study examined the potential effects of roads on the reproductive success of subalpine wildflower populations in two meadows at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in Gothic, CO. Based on studies conducted in previous years, we predicted that distance from a road would result in differences in pollinator visitation, pollen loads, and seed sets of Ipomopsis aggregata. Additionally, this study evaluated the road environment in terms of human traffic disturbance. In our characterization, we highlight road noise as a possible interpretation of observed differences near and far from the road. We found trends suggesting visitation rates were generally higher for plants near the road versus farther away. However, we did find that events of visitation are often longer in terms of number of flowers visited on plants further from the unpaved road, which suggests pollinators may have been interrupted during visits to plants near the road. Measurements of traffic volume and frequency along with paired decibel level measurements also indicated that the noise produced by the road is significantly higher than ambient noise levels, implicating that human disturbance, particularly in the form of motorized vehicles, directly alter the noise environment at these sites. Data continue to be analyzed to relate visitation rates, pollen loads, and seed sets obtained from this experiment. For now, we conclude that the effects of roads, particularly in terms of increased noise pollution, must continue to be studied in order to further our understanding of how the expansion of human infrastructure is potentially altering the surrounding natural environment.

Reproductive Success and Parental Care of Nicrophorus investigator. - S. Lamb (2014)
For years the standard of care in burying beetles has been a male and female, bi- parental care, but is it really? The intent of this experiment was to measure the success of burying beetle larvae produced under four different parental conditions after carcass preparation; 50 pairs of Nicrophorus investigator were collected from the wild and randomly assigned treatments of both parents, solo female, solo male, and neither parent, imposed the day that larvae hatched. The time it took for each stage of development was recorded. Once the larvae reached the last instar and consumed the carcass they were counted and weighed. The traditional pair of male and female parents was predicted to lead to the best larval growth (total brood mass, average larval mass, and larval number. The larvae without parents were not predicted to survive, and the uniparental (male or female parent only) were predicted to fall in between. The results found that broods with parents (at least one) did better than broods without attending adults (broods raised by solo females were just as successful as broods raised with both parents, and male and no parents were the poorest. Solo male parents produced significantly smaller broods, and broods without parents were able to survive without parental feeding. These results can give us more insight to the different behavior of male and female burying beetles.