The Rocky Mountains are one of the world’s most diverse areas in all of Western United States. Like most wonders of the world, the Rocky Mountains are also subjected to unpaved roads, and these roads often produce fine particulates of dirt that are able to rise into the air with ease. In this study,

Mutualistic interactions are ubiquitous in nature. These type of interactions generally provide benefits to interacting species. Insects and plants are commonly involved in diverse forms of mutualism, however little is known if genetic variation among plants allows for a positive symbiosis with arth

Hemiparasites such as those in the genus Castilleja have important effects on the plant communities they are found in. For example, hemiparasitic plants may reduce the abundance of dominant plant species, opening niche space for sub- ordinates. This effect may be driven by direct parasitism of Casti

Plant-pollinator interactions play a vital role in the functioning and stability of our ecosystems. Without pollination, angiosperms would not be able to set seed and reproduce, and most organisms would lose their primary source of nutrients and resources. Owing to the fact that pollination services

Boechera stricta, a native forb common to the Rocky Mountain range in western North America, is a model species at the forefront of genetics and ecology. Over millennia, in response to herbivory, plants have developed secondary metabolite defensive compounds to deter wide ranges of herbivores. Gluco

Associatively learning is commonly observed throughout the natural world in many interactions between species and their environment. We know ants utilize environmental cues in their foraging patterns to locate and recruit to food, but little is known about their ability to associatively learn to for

Currently, due to global warming, we are seeing large range shifts in many different species across the world. As these species shift they are encountering new species and new environments. The way that a species interacts with these new species and environments will determine its ability to expand

Innovation is widespread in animals and may help them modify their behavior to changes in the environment. A common method to determine whether a species possesses innovative abilities is to present them with a novel foraging problem and then to explain the traits that may predict success. Individua

As global climate changes ephemeral freshwater systems face changes in historical hydroperiod with a shift towards shorter wet periods. Vernal ponds are one such type of lentic ephemeral system; in general they are relatively small and shallow, which causes them to dry in late spring or early summer

Reproductive timing is an important determinant of offspring success which ultimately contributes to an individual’s overall fitness. In seasonal environments with short growing seasons, organisms must time reproductive activity so that offspring experience relatively high levels of resource abundan

Sexually selected traits are often plastic and can thus provide information on infection status and parasite load. Mounting an immune response has been shown to require the diversion of energy and resources away from other life history functions. Previous studies have demonstrated that bird song may

According to trade-off theory, animals weigh the benefits of obtaining resources against the risks of being preyed upon during these activities. One major factor that can influence an animal’s risk assessment is its current body condition, for example animals that are of lower body condition may be