Concepts

Limitations on activity imposed by temperature and radiation conditions

Computational approach to calculate radiation fluxes through the atmosphere under specified atmospheric conditions

The fraction of solar radiation reflected by the surface, with snow-covered surfaces having high albedo (0.8) and snow-free surfaces having lower values

The lowest part of the atmosphere directly influenced by the Earth's surface

The role of atmospheric aerosols in cloud formation and precipitation by acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and ice-nucleating particles (INPs)

The difference between net radiation flux at the surface under all-sky and clear-sky conditions, accounting for both downwelling and upwelling radiation changes

Physical processes affecting snow particle formation, growth, and characteristics including aggregation, riming, sublimation, and fragmentation

The balance of vertical radiative, conductive, and turbulent energy transfer across the infinitely thin plane of the surface

Seasonal precipitation system occurring July-September in the central Rocky Mountains bringing significant rainfall to Colorado River headwater basins

Meteorological events that are rare for a particular place or time of year and can have major ecological impacts

Atmospheric turbulence generated by airflow over mountainous terrain leading to enhanced mixing and modified precipitation processes

Large-scale atmospheric weather patterns that influence regional temperature and precipitation distributions

Measure of cloud opacity to solar radiation, related to cloud droplet concentration and size distribution

Classification of cloud particles as liquid water droplets, ice crystals, or mixed phase

Spectral band ratio that leverages the fact that snow reflectance is high in visible wavelengths and low in shortwave infrared wavelengths

Transfer of sensible and latent heat between surface and atmosphere via turbulent mixing

The most recent period in Earth's history (~116-130 ka) when temperatures were persistently warmer than today, specifically the Eemian period at 125 ka

The positive feedback mechanism where reduced snow cover lowers surface albedo, increasing absorption and further reducing snow cover

Rate at which turbulent kinetic energy is converted to heat, used as quantitative measure of atmospheric turbulence intensity

Parameter describing the water uptake ability of aerosol particles using κ-Köhler theory